EXORDIUM
UPDATED
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA OF HIV IN INDIA
Scientific evidence from India’s National
Family Health Survey (NFHS-3) has provided new insights into the extent of
India’s HIV epidemic. NFHS included HIV testing on a representative sample of
more than 100,000 women and men nationwide.
·
The
National HIV prevalence rate is 0.28
percent.
·
The HIV
prevalence rate among men, 0.36 percent, is 64 percent higher than the rate
among women, which is 0.22 percent. For both men and women, HIV prevalence is
highest in the age group 30-34. HIV is 40 percent higher in urban than rural
areas.
·
While this
may seem low, because India's population is so large, it is third in the
world in terms of greatest number of people living with HIV.
·
With a population
of around a billion, a mere 0.1% increase in HIV prevalence would increase
the estimated number of people living
with HIV by over half a million.[1]
·
The HIV
prevalence among the High Risk Groups,
i.e., Female Sex Workers, Injecting Drug Users, Men who have Sex with Men and
Transgenders is about 20 times
higher than the general population.
·
Around 35 million children are classified as
AIDS orphan. UNICEF statistics tells that around 30,000 babies are born HIV+ each year.[2] Based
on HIV Sentinel Surveillance 2008-09, it is estimated that India has an adult
prevalence of 0.29 percent with 23.9 lakh people infected with HIV, of
which, 39 percent are female and 3.5 percent are children.[3]
Previous estimates from the Government of India,
5.2 million, were based largely on the sentinel surveillance system, which
relies on regular HIV testing of subgroups within the population, such as
pregnant women attending government antenatal clinics and patients visiting
sexually transmitted disease clinics. The new national estimates, 2.27 million,
take into multiple sources of information: the third National Family Health
Survey (NFHS-3), the governments expanded sentinel surveillance system and
targeted surveys of groups that have a high risk of getting HIV.[4]
CURE
FOUND! Is this it?[5]
On 26th July, 2012, a new study has
been released at the XIX International AIDS Conference (AIDS 2012) in
Washington, confirming that patients treated early and then taken off
antiretroviral therapy have shown no signs of a resurgence of their HIV
infection. There exists a unique cohort of patients in France who became HIV
infected, started therapy early, and were able to successfully stop therapy
without having a resurgence of their HIV infection. The study confirms the
benefits of treating HIV at the very early stages of infection. Another study
was presented today at AIDS 2012 by Daniel Kuritzkes. They studied the
persistence of HIV in two HIV-infected men who underwent allogeneic (foreign) stem cell transplantation for treatment of
lymphoma. Both patients had been infected for many years, and had been on
antiretroviral therapy that completely suppressed HIV replication, but
continued to have detectable latent virus in their circulating lymphocytes prior
to transplantation. Results from a study led by David Margolis at the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill showed that a dose of a drug that
inhibits an enzyme involved in HIV silencing leads to rapid production of HIV
RNA in the patient’s latently infected cells. This could make such previously
unreachable viral reservoirs susceptible to curative strategies.
Despite these successes, these therapies have
limitations. They do not eradicate HIV, requiring people to remain on expensive
and potentially toxic drugs for life. They do not fully restore health as
patients still experience co-morbidities such as increased cardiovascular
disease, bone disorders or cognitive impairment. They are expensive and
difficult to deliver to all in need. Therefore, in our present situation, the
cure is still a matter of socio-economic concern.
INTRODUCTION
India is one among the countries that have the
most complex, intricate and knotty social setup predominated by stratification
in terms of caste, class and gender. One-third of its population (roughly
equivalent to the entire population of the United States) lives below the
poverty line and India is home to one-third of the world's poor people. Though
the middle class has gained from recent positive economic
developments, India suffers from substantial poverty.[6] Such
a miniature report can throw a light on the worse socio-economic status (SES)
of the People Living with HIV&AIDS (PLWHA) with all the stigma and
discrimination, coupled with poverty and denial of resources. In such a context,
faith traditions have always played a significant role in addressing all walks
of life in all communities. The HIV& AIDS pandemic too, poses new
challenges to Christian faith based on the Bible, raising several critical
questions on the teachings and beliefs about human sexuality, discrimination,
exclusion, patriarchy, stigma and the like. Accordingly, this paper is a small
attempt to address the SES of HIV&AIDS in India with its biblical
implications. However, it is limited only to the strategic and scientific study
of the SES and avoid considerably dealing with the plights and pains of PLWHA.
It is also limited to few select texts of the Bible which are most commonly picked
out to address the mentioned issue.
1. HIV&AIDS
and SES
The SES is an
important determinant of health and nutritional status as well as mortality. It also influences the
accessibility, affordability, acceptability and
actual utilization of various available health facilities. SES is often measured as a combination of education, income and
occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an
individual or group. When viewed through a social class lens, privilege, power
and control are emphasized. Furthermore, an examination of SES as a gradient or
continuous variable reveals inequities in access to and distribution of
resources. SES is relevant to all realms of behavioral and social science,
including research, practice, education and advocacy.[7]
1.1 Socio-economic
study of PLWHA
Here we shall rely and take into account the exhaustive study made by Dr
Mariamma Thomas.[8] In her presentation, she informed that PLWHA
have lower socio-economic status and are likely to die earlier than those who
have higher levels of wealth and education. In fact, the susceptibility to
opportunistic infections among the former is much greater than those in the
latter group. In addition, there are ethnic and racial differences which come
in the way of receiving health care services including treatment with Highly
Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART). The health costs also vary because of
differences in community services, disease stage and transmission categories,
social and economic factors such as employment and support of a living-in
partner.[9]
1.2 Method Adopted: Information on the age and socio-economic
characteristics of the individuals such as education, occupation, migration
status and place of residence was collected in HIV Sentinel Surveillance (HSS).
The educational and occupational background during last five years had been
studied to know socio-economic status (SES) of the HSS population. Educational
status was measured as level of education attained: no education, primary,
secondary, and higher. Caste was based on individual self-identification as
belonging to a scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, other backward class, other or
no caste group. An individual's employment status was defined as either
unemployed or employed. Living environment was defined as city, town, or rural.
Analysis was carried out separately for high prevalence and low-moderate states
too. Since occupation is a good determinant of SES, descriptive analysis on
occupational background had been carried out to understand SES of HSS
population and HIV prevalence among them derived to assess the spread of
infection in different occupational groups. Correlation of the socio-economic
factors on HIV positivity among the patients had also been assessed.[10]
1.3 Results
SES of the people
participating in HSS over past five years was found to be similar. Majority of
the Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) clinic attendees were agricultural /
unskilled workers and housewives. In high prevalence states around 36% were
agricultural/unskilled workers and around 28% were housewives and in low
prevalence state the two groups respectively accounted for around 19% and 41%.
Other occupational groups attending the STD clinics in high prevalence states
were drivers/cleaners, industry/factory workers (around 8% each), service (6%),
business (5%), students (4%) and 3% each of hotel staff and unemployed.
Distribution of similar occupational groups in low-moderate states was service
(around 10%), business (around 8%), 6% each of industry/factory workers and
students, around 5% driver/cleaner, 4% unemployed and 2% hotel staff. The range
of HIV prevalence among STD patients in high prevalence states in past five
years for different occupational groups was - driver/cleaner: 19-22%, Hotel
staff: 15-21%, business: 15-19%, industry/factory workers: 11-19%,
agricultural/unskilled workers: 16-18%, unemployed: 12-15%, service and
housewives: 10-13% and students 4-7%. Similar distribution in low prevalence
states was driver/cleaner: 3-5%, Hotel staff: 3-5%, business: 2-3%,
industry/factory workers: 3-4%, agricultural/unskilled workers: 2-3%,
unemployed: 2-4%, service and housewives: 1-3% and students 1-2%.[11]
Majority, more than
50% in high prevalence states were agricultural/unskilled workers. Driver/Cleaner,
service and business groups each accounted for 10-12 percent. In low-moderate
states agricultural/unskilled workers were: around 40%, business 20%, service
15%, industry/factory workers 10%, drivers/cleaners 9%, unemployed 4% and 1%
each of hotel staff and students. HIV prevalence in all occupational groups in
high prevalence states varied between 1% and 2% over past five years and in low
prevalence states it was less than 1% in all groups. Analysis of HSS data revealed
that the likelihood of seropositivity[12]
among STD patients is higher in 20-44 age group compared to below 20 years.
There is an inverse relationship between education and likelihood of seropositivity.
Migrants seem to be at higher risk of HIV infection compared to non-migrants in
all three epidemic zones. Among the four occupation groups (unskilled,
drivers/cleaners, Business/Industrial workers and service), drivers/cleaners
are at higher risk to HIV infection compared to unskilled workers in high and
low level epidemic states. However, in moderate level epidemic states the odds
ratio for all the three groups was 1.5 compared to unskilled workers. Among HIV
positives from Antenatal Clinic (ANC) women attendees statistically significant
likelihood was found only for occupation of husband as drivers/cleaners in low
epidemic zone. No other variables were found to have significant correlation
for HIV infection in general population.[13] For
men living in states with high income inequality (as compared to low income
inequality), there was an associated 67% increased risk of being HIV positive. There
was no effect, however, for women.[14]
Studies
on Women: At the end of 2003, there
were 1.9 million women living with HIV&AIDS worldwide. 100,000 HIV infected
pregnant women give birth to children every year and one out of every three passes
the infection to their offspring. Now, there are an estimated 2 million women
involved in sex work in India. The Human Development Report indicates that 80%
of India’s population lives on less than one hundred rupees a day. Furthermore,
India is ranked 103rd (out of 144 countries) in the gender development index
(GDI), which captures inequalities in achievements between men and women.[15] Women
account for 38% of the HIV population in our country. 90% of these women are
young housewives and have acquired the infection from their husbands. 10% could
be due to their own risk behavior or from blood transfusions etc. 90% of
children under the age of 15 years have acquired the infection from their mothers.[16]
1.4 EVALUATION
OF SES OF HIV&AIDS IN INDIA:[17]
Compared to those with
secondary education, men with higher education have a lower odds ratio of being
HIV positive. However, those with no education and those with primary education
have higher odds ratio of being HIV positive. Women showed a similar pattern. Some
argue that poverty creates the conditions – limited access to education,
employment, training – for risk-taking and high risk sexual activity, and,
thus, increasing exposure to HIV. Others argue that wealth is associated with
HIV by enabling individuals to purchase sex and maintain multiple concurrent
sexual partnerships which increase exposure to HIV. The varying increased risk
for positive HIV status by household wealth in India does not adhere solely to either
of these theories. One reason for a weak wealth gradient may be that access to
HIV prevention services does not depend on a household's ability to pay, for
example, for free condom distribution. Furthermore, although increased wealth
may improve access to healthcare facilities which offer services to help reduce
HIV transmission, utilization is not guaranteed because agency may not be
guaranteed. Thus, solely poverty reducing strategies may not be the most
effective intervention to reduce HIV prevalence in India. Similarly, the
patterning of HIV status by education, i.e. reduced risk associated with
increased education, is confirmed by research in India, and in Africa, though
contrasted by research in some developing countries. People with greater education
may have adopted risk-reduction behaviors more quickly than those with less
education because the well educated were more exposed to health promotion
messages or more empowered to negotiate protective behaviors with sexual
partners. Among men, the extent of state-level inequality may create conditions
under which lower educated men engage in risky sexual behavior whereas women
may be less empowered to control their sexual behavior regardless of the
inequality of the state in which they live.
1.4.1
SES Impacts the Lives of PLWHA
Domestically and
internationally, HIV is a disease that is embedded in social and economic
inequity, as it affects those of lower socio-economic status at a
disproportionately high rate. Research on SES and HIV/AIDS suggests that a
person’s socio-economic standing may affect his or her likelihood of
contracting HIV and developing AIDS. Furthermore, SES is a key factor in
determining the quality of life for individuals after they are infected/affected
by the virus. Those with fewer resources are often left with limited treatment
options.
1.4.2 SES Affects HIV Infection
·
A lack of
socio-economic resources is linked to the practice of riskier health behaviors,
which can lead to the contraction of HIV. These behaviors include earlier
initiation of sexual activity and less frequent use of condoms.
·
Among
women, lower social standing and the experience of life stress are associated
with riskier sexual practices. This finding suggests that while ethnicity is a
critical factor in the HIV/AIDS epidemic for women, social class is also an
important risk factor in HIV infection.
·
Unstable
housing has been linked to risk for HIV infection, including IV drug use and
unsafe sexual behaviors. Individuals who are homeless or in unstable housing arrangements
are significantly more likely to be infected with HIV compared to individuals
in more stable housing environments.
·
Lack of
socio-economic resources is also associated with risk factors for
neuropsychiatric dysfunction, such as exposure to environmental toxins and
injuries. These factors can make persons with HIV more vulnerable to the
central nervous system effects of the virus, including more rapid cognitive
decline and onset of dementia.
1.4.3 HIV Status Affects SES
HIV status often has a negative impact on
socioeconomic status by constraining an individual’s ability to work and earn
income.
·
Research
indicates that up to 45% of PLWHA are unemployed.
·
The
effects of HIV on physical and mental functioning can make maintaining regular
employment difficult. Patients with HIV infection may also find that their work
responsibilities compete with their health care needs. Individuals infected
with HIV are often discriminated against in the workplace, leading to their
termination or forced resignation.
·
Children
infected with HIV often exhibit cognitive deficits when compared with their
uninfected peers. These deficits can adversely affect learning and earning
ability later in life.
1.4.4 SES Affects HIV Treatment
·
SES often
determines access to HIV treatment. Individuals of low SES have delayed
treatment initiation relative to more affluent patients, reducing their chances
of survival.
·
Patients
of lower SES with HIV have increased morbidity and mortality rates. Research
suggests a correlation between low SES and earlier death from HIV&AIDS.
Accordingly, individuals of higher SES levels experience slower progression of
HIV infection.
·
Decreased
access to health insurance and preventive services is a major contributor to
health disparities between high- and low-SES individuals. Low-income
individuals are not likely to have health coverage or receive optimal treatment
and care for HIV/AIDS, such as Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART).
2. Response
In the course of our encounter with HIV and
AIDS, people have responded variedly. Some people in the public and church
domains have adopted what has been called a ‘rejecting punitive approach’ which
is the rejection of people with HIV or AIDS on the grounds that their illness is
the result of sin. Fairly better, others have adopted an approach of ‘qualified
acceptance’ which maintains that HIV and AIDS is a part of the reality, and so
the Church and Christians should be accepting but still uphold that HIV and AIDS is the result of sin. Few have fully accepted and are of the
conviction that Christian love demands no less and that all those infected with
HIV or AIDS should be accepted and that one needs to show compassion for them
and support them in their efforts to cope with the disease.
2.1
METHODS AND APPROACH
There are many ways of mainstreaming
HIV&AIDS into biblical studies and theological programs. Whatever methods
we adopt, they should address the problems that are precipitated by
HIV&AIDS, and contribute to prevention, provision of quality care,
elimination of both the HIV&AIDS stigma and discrimination, and the
minimization of the wide-reaching impact of the epidemic. Teaching or
re-reading the Bible in the light of HIV&AIDS means that such methods will
have to be both theologically grounded and contextually oriented. That is, the
approach will be to read the Bible not only as an historical and ancient book,
but also with an eye to current concerns. Musa Wenkosi
Dube has given the following methods to teach biblical studies in an HIV &
AIDS context: available methods, African biblical methods, a thematic approach,
a book approach and a comparative approach.[18] This paper incorporates combination of the Thematic, Book and the African
biblical approach.
3. BIBLICAL
RESPONSE
The fact that the
Bible is the primary source for Christian theology is undisputed. But because
of sharply differing understandings and interpretations, this strand fashions
dramatically distinct designs in various theological weavings. A primary point
of departure in how Christians think theologically about HIV and AIDS stems
from the fundamental disagreement. It
must be recognized that equally sincere Christians may disagree as to which
insights from the Bible should be applied to a particular social issue and they
might further disagree about the nature of biblical authority and how the Bible
ought to be interpreted and applied to social concerns. Consequently, one must
recognize one's own presuppositions in interpreting the Bible and the basis on which
one chooses biblical passages to inform thinking.[19]
A conservative response to HIV and AIDS often
rests on a particular way of understanding the authority and primacy of the
Bible. Not only select portions of the Bible, but also the totality of the
Bible had been understood as being against those with HIV and AIDS. But an
alternative approach for doing theology recognizes that the Bible is not independent
from its interpreters. Scripture did not suddenly appear in a bound volume, but
it resulted from centuries of conscientious religious persons seeking to
understand and interpret God's will and way for humanity. Written in different
languages from our own, the Bible has been conditioned by historical, social,
and scientific understandings distinct from those of the contemporary world.[20]
3.1 THE OLD TESTAMENT
3.1.1
NUMBERS 12: MIRIAM OUTSIDE THE CAMP
A) The Plot: The biblical text tells us that during the sojourn in the wilderness, Miriam
and her brother Aaron equally challenged Moses' sole leadership and only Miriam
was punished and rather severely! "Has Yahweh indeed spoken only by Moses?
Has he not spoken by us as well?" The claim comes from Aaron the
"mouthpiece of Moses" (Ex.4), and Miriam the Prophetess (Ex. 15). God
bids the three siblings to the tent of meeting, descends in a pillar of cloud
and reprimands Miriam and Aaron, emphasizing the special or unique manner in
which God and Moses communicate (12:8-9). As the cloud lifts, Miriam is made a
leper; someone who would contaminate others who came into contact with her. The
immediate thought is that the resultant isolation of the challengers would keep
the contagion of rebellion against the patriarchal Moses from spreading. But
why is only the woman "struck with leprosy" and therefore isolated?
This is a question that has not found any satisfactory answer. But what is
important for us is that Miriam exercises her individuality and was put down.
She experiences the harshness of her oppression and discrimination with her
body. It is her flesh that is attacked and she is silent in the face of stigma
and the resultant suffering.[21]
B) Interpretation: What the text presupposes and directs about
matters of social significance is especially problematic, due in part to the
deeply rooted patriarchalism of ancient society. But in the context of the
theme of this paper, the text highlights several issues: (1) It is God who is
pictured as inflicting illness upon Miriam, who also restores the health of Miriam
when Moses and Aaron intercede on her behalf. We are not told if Miriam herself
sought forgiveness in any way or retracted her questions. The text seems to
imply that God healed Miriam out of God's good grace; (2) Aaron is not
punished. God's ways are unpredictable." God's role is not simple as that
of preserving the righteous and punishing the wicked? (3) The text also
highlights the pain of unmitigated suffering and stigmatization, which is the experience
of many people infected with HIV or AIDS; (4) we are not sure exactly when
Miriam was healed but she was healed and hence readmitted into the community
after having undergone a ritual separation of seven days, and the community
could continue on its journey towards the Promised Land.[22]
C) Relevance: After the
punishment we do not hear Miriam’s voice again. She is mentioned again in Num
20:1 in her obituary. Considering what her life must have been like after this
incident until she died, even though she was healed, the stigma remained, as
one who had sinned, as one who was punished by God with leprosy. She is now a
blemished woman, a living example of what could happen if one challenges the
decisions of God. It is hard to say if she was allowed to actively participate
in the affairs of the community. The prophetess who led the community in dance
and song after the victory at the Red Sea is silenced forever. Her
contributions after this incident, if there were any, have been successfully
erased from the memory of the community. Her silence in response to God's
punishment represents the silence, the voicelessness of the stigmatized individuals
who internalize their stigma at the horror of a situation that is often not
understandable. People infected with HIV or AIDS, no matter how they have
contracted the virus or the disease have been like Miriam relegated to a life
on the periphery, on the margins of society, outside the gate, whose life in
the world is suppressed, their bodies abused, their cries of anger and pain
ignored or silenced. What the Hebrew Bible attests as unchanging is the reality
of the gift and claim of God's grace, not the specific ways that God's grace should
come to expression in the world. Thus, it is a pre-requisite that the
believing community to constantly rethink what actions express God's grace and
what actions do not. The Church must avail itself to the most recent findings
and the keenest insights from all pertinent fields of inquiry.[23]
3.1.2 2 SAMUEL 13:1-22: TAMAR’S CRY: RE-READING IN THE
MIDST OF AN HIV AND AIDS PANDEMIC
A) The Plot: The story in 2 Samuel 13:1-22 is well known yet
seldom preached. King David's son Amnon falls in love with his beautiful
half-sister Tamar. Amnon pretends that he is sick, and at his request David
sends Tamar to him to make cakes "in his sight". He sends the
servants away, and asks Tamar to bring the cakes "into the chamber, so
that I may eat from your hand". She does so, he grabs her hand and says
"Come lie with me, my sister". She resists: "No my brother, do
not force me; for such a thing is not done in Israel; do not do anything so
vile! As for me where could I carry my shame? And as for you, you would be as
one of the scoundrels in Israel". But Amnon will not listen, he is
stronger than Tamar and he rapes her. Once the deed is done, Amnon is
"seized with a great loathing for her" and he says: "Get
out!" Tamar protests at her treatment. Again Amnon is deaf to her
entreaties, calls a servant and instructs him to "Put this woman out of my
presence, and bolt the door after her". This is done and Tamar puts ashes
on her head, goes away and "remains a desolate
woman in her brother Absalom's house". Later we learn that Absalom
kills Amnon as revenge for Tamar's rape.
B) Interpretation: Tamar is not only a victim of rape. She is betrayed by
her family, raped and then despised. She is no longer "my sister",
but "this woman". Amnon ends up hating her. Once the rape is
committed, he is confronted by his own morbidity mirrored to him in the tragic
figure of his victim. This he cannot bear and she is "put out" of his
presence. She is also a victim of her father's abdication of his responsibility
as king and as father. There is no record of him responding to this outrage
with an appropriate punishment. In fact, he will not punish Amnon "because
he loved him, for he was his firstborn". Finally, she is cast out. We last hear of her
as remaining in Absalom's house "a desolate woman". Condemned to a quiet
life of despair and desolation, her social and spiritual needs are not
acknowledged or addressed and she disappears into the mists of history. In
summary, Tamar lives in a world where men manipulate and coerce by using their
power and in which her life is ruined by events she has no control over. Amnon uses
his male power and privilege to destroy. In societies where the silence on
sexual violence is not broken, abuse of power is not held accountable.[24]
C) Relevance: According
to Denise M. Ackermann, there
are two viruses more dangerous than the HIV virus because they are carriers
enabling this virus to spread so rapidly. The first virus is the one that
assigns women an inferior status to men in society. This virus fuels the sex
industry in which young women, they themselves the victims of abuse, become
infected with HIV and then pass it on to others, even to their babies. This is
the virus that causes men to abuse women. This is the virus that is responsible
for the shocking fact that in many countries the condition that carries the
highest risk of HIV infection is that of being married women. The second virus
that enables the HIV virus to spread at a devastating rate is the virus of
global economic injustice that causes dreadful poverty in many parts of the
developing world. Global economic systems disrupt traditional societies,
displace economic and educational infrastructures, and the market demands of such
systems make access to prevention and treatment of disease difficult and
expensive. It appears that women's vulnerability to HIV and AIDS occurs on a
variety of levels: biological, social, individual, maternal and care-giving.
For instance, an HIV positive pregnant woman runs the risk of transmitting the
virus to her child, either during pregnancy, during birth or after birth
through breast feeding. Rural women who have little or no education and who
live in traditional patriarchal relationships have scant access to information
on HIV and AIDS, and generally lack the skills and the power needed "to
negotiate safer sex". Women who are HIV positive are at the receiving end
of stigma, social ostracism and violence. Countless women like Tamar been the
victims of sexual violence, perpetrated within a cultural order in which power
is abused and women are used for male purposes. Consequently once their status
has been verified, they are often ostracized. Tamar knew what it was like to be
a soiled good, a status conferred on her by the abuse of power in a patriarchal
order. Her cry "for such a thing is not done in Israel" is ignored.
In a patriarchal system women's cries of distress are insufficiently heard and
they often disappear under a veil of silence. Breaking the silence about one's
status can be life-threatening. Now, Tamar's cry "for such a thing is not done
in Israel" allows us to find hope where there is little cause for it,
enables us to say "yes" when all else shouts "no" and
allows chinks of light to guide our feet. Her cry jars our reality. We know
what should "not be done in Israel". "We know what to do"
is a formulation that takes us to the very heart of the scandal that is HIV&AIDS;
it situates us on the frontier between hope and despair, between action and
inertia, between those with the means to 'do something' and those who have
little to 'do' but suffer".[25]
3.1.3 EZEKIEL 37: 1-14: CAN THESE BONES LIVE?
RE-READING IN THE HIV/AIDS CONTEXT
A) The Plot: Judah has gone into exile and has lost all hope of
ever coming back to life. Earlier in Ezekiel 33:10, the exiles had posed a
question to Ezekiel, "How then can we live?" Later, in 37:11, they
confess, "Our bones are dried up." Even though their condition at the
time was created by their own, their ancestors' and others' deeds, they had
become demoralized and dejected. They were dead both physically (several of
them having died in the many battles they had fought) and spiritually (their
Temple had been destroyed). They needed revival both ways. In the midst of this
devastation and loss of hope, the hand of Yahweh, God, brings Ezekiel to an
ecstatic experience of the situation in which Judah finds herself. The ruah Yahweh "Spirit of God, by the
command of the prophet, brings the numerous dry bones, scattered on the face of
the valley, to join together, be enfleshed and come to life.[26]
B) Interpretation: The story is divided into two main parts. They are a
vision (37:1-10) and its interpretation (vv. 11-14). In the first part of the vision,
there is a prophetic summons, which causes the "very many" dejected,
"dry bones," lying about "on the face of the valley" to
join "a bone to its bone." Sinews or flesh come upon them and they
form a very large community (vv 1-8). There is also the invitation of the ruah Yahweh to come into the bones and
cause them to come to life (37:9-10). The second part of this vision is its
interpretation, which is given to the prophet by Yahweh. It is presented as
Israel's own lamentation of her predicament, "Our bones are dried and our
hope is perished; we are cut off to ourselves?" (11b). This lament is met
with Yahweh's hopeful response. This part of the oracle is made very dramatic by
the vision of the former part. A final part can be identified, which has
undertones of eschatology. In the eschatological idea in Ezekiel, there will be
a revival or restoration, in which there will be a future settlement in the
land. The belief of the early rabbinical school in the resurrection from the
dead is also promoted by Ezekiel's eschatological conclusion.[27]
Several expressions used to describe the gravity of
the situation in the valley of dry bones produce the effect of absolute
hopelessness. This vision occurring in habbiq'ah
(the valley) or plain, carries the impression of absolute hopelessness. The
situation in this valley is one of desolateness. The valley is melia'h (full). One would expect grass
as the surface covering of the valley but it was covered by rabboth meod (very many) and yibeoth meod (very dry) asamoth (bones) sabbib sabbib (all around). These "very dry" and
"very many bones" paint the picture of a very vast parched emptiness.
They are very effective in conveying the message of the seriousness of the
predicament in which Judah was at the time. The exigency of the situation to which
the prophet was to react instantly, is communicated by the use of causative
verbs (hipils) and imperatives.
Ezekiel says, "he made me to pass," "prophesy to these bones, "
"and say to them." God causes or issues commands, which Ezekiel had
to carry out to bring the bones to life. Despite their despair condition Yahweh was able to regenerate, reanimate
and resurrect "the whole house of Israel" (v. 11a).[28]
C) Relevance: In a
situation such as ours, HIV&AIDS has dried up our bones as were the bones
Ezekiel encountered in the valley. Theirs were dried up by the conditions of
the Babylonian exile and ours by our own political, social, economic, etc
conditions. The conditions we experience have broken us apart and we need to be
brought back together for our revival. There is a stage of utter hopelessness.
Here both the affected and infected are devastated and have lost all hope,
especially in the face of the accompanying stigmatization. There is another
stage, which is that of concerned care giving. This takes the form of
"comprehensive sex education and compassionate programs that enhance care
initiatives through the active but critical support of the intervention programs
that governments have drawn to stem the tide of the spread of HIV&AIDS".
These can generate some peace in the midst of suffering. In the face of HIV&AIDS, there is a kind of exigency, a kairos, an opportune time that HIV&AIDS
must be taken more seriously by following the command of God. We all are
desperate. Our hopes of survival are shattered. There is no suggestion of a
change in our circumstances but even as Yahweh
was able to do for the house of Israel so is Yahweh able to do in our situation. God can turn around our
situation and cause our dejected bones and demoralized systems to rise and
receive new hope. The image of restoration in this passage from Ezekiel is
twofold. It is a resurrection from the dead and restoration from exile. HIV&AIDS
also requires a twofold restoration. First there is the need for acceptance of
the fact of the disease and then an acceptance of those infected and also those
affected (those devastated by the disease). This acceptance on both levels will
cause us to merit Yahweh's intervention in our situation.[29]
3.2 THE
NEW TESTAMENT
3.2.1 MATTHEW 15:21-28: RE-READING OF THE STORY OF THE
CANAANITE WOMAN AND HER DEMON POSSESSED DAUGHTER IN THE HIV/AIDS CONTEXT
A) The Plot & Background: Scholarly research on the Gospel of
Matthew indicates that the healing ministry of Jesus is intertwined between the
five blocks of teachings. These are: the Sermon on the Mount, chapters 5-7;
teachings on discipleship, chapter 10; teachings on the kingdom of heaven
through parables (chapter 13); teachings on humility (chapter 18) and discourse
on end times - eschatology (chapters 24-25). The healing ministry is portrayed
more vividly in the context of Jesus' teaching. Matthew hemmed together these discourses
in the five blocks of Jesus' teachings to demonstrate the fulfillment of the prophetic
promises of God and through his ministry and what it implies to humanity.
According to Matthew, faith and praxis, that is, proclamation and healing are
inseparable. Here, before the story of Matthew 15: 21-28 began, Jesus had
finished his third discourse on the Kingdom of Heaven, teaching and healing the
sick regardless of the opposition and rejection. It was in the context of his
second rejection and the hard-heartedness of the Pharisees, Jesus envisioned
threat to his life (Herod supposedly thought John the Baptist has been raised
from the dead [14:1-12]). Therefore, Jesus withdrew from his own territory to
the Gentile province. Matthew calls it the "district of Tyre and
Sidon" (15:21). It is in the Gentile territory that the encounter between
Jesus and the Canaanite woman took place.[30]
B)
Interpretation: Encountering the Canaanite woman in the Gentile
territory could have great significance. Foreign lands have always been the
refuge and solace for Israel and for Jesus. Apparently, in this episode, God
used this opportunity to extend the benefits of God's reign across the
geographical and cultural boundaries. Both the foreigner (Jesus) and the native
(the Canaanite woman) benefited. The story introduces the woman with a sense of
urgency, “And behold, a Canaanite woman from that region came out and cried,"
that is without shame and/or fear and cried out! The Greek has ekrazen, which means "cried out".
This was both a cry of pain and a plea for help. It implies helplessness
because she was unable to heal her severely demon possessed daughter. It also
implies power on her ability to seek and express her ordeal. In the Hebrew
Bible, the word garah, which means
cry or call out loud, is frequently used as a cry of pain and a plea for help.
The Psalms of Lament often use this word garah
as a prayer of the needy.[31]
In these Psalms of Lament, the cry of pain and plea for help is found mostly in
the individual laments. Here the woman cries eleeson (have mercy on me). In the Hebrew Bible, the word rehem indicates both the emotion and
location of mercy (the womb). While the cry eleeson
me may carry several, in this story
it is a cry to the mercy/heart ("womb") of Jesus in search for help
from intensive suffering of the Canaanite woman's daughter. The mother pleads
on behalf of her helpless and demon possessed child. She does this because her
maternal womb aches for the child's situation and in her own capacity she is
powerless to alleviate the problem. Jesus replied in offensive language and
harsh criticism to the Gentiles such as – “I
was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel,” and in imagery, “it is not fair to take the children’s bread
and throw it to the dogs.” Animal imagery was a common literary technique
of the Ancient Near East where Israel and other nations used such language when
they referred to each other as enemies. It was the persistence based on faith
which moved Jesus. What she received has far greater significance from both
personal and social level than simply the cure of her daughter – she has social
recognition, her dignity has been restored. She is also commended for
incredible faith where she has seen the extent of God’s work through Messiah as
extending to the Gentiles.[32]
C)
Relevance: PLWHA are silenced to speak out their predicament. Why is this
so? Of course, there are many answers to this question. One is that HIV&AIDS
is considered to be one of the shameful diseases because it is associated with
sex. One might be looked down upon as sexually promiscuous. PLWHA are
stigmatized with shame, guilt and alienation. Another reason why people do not
speak out pain is because they have been taught that complaining is against the
conventional faith. In other words, complaint shows lack of faith; it is a sign
of unbelief. Because of these misleading teachings, PLWHAs ought to keep
silent. Even when they try to speak, the family, church and community silence
them.
With the
current threat of HIV&AIDS on the lives of many people, especially women
and children, how does the church help women to express their cry of suffering?
How do the church and community enable people to break the silence? How does
the church deal with these existential realities? How does the Church explain
the existence of suffering and its remedy? "Our Christian practice has
created a euphoria in itself that, on the one hand, narrows and deflects our
understanding of life into a straight, one-dimensional adventure, and on the
other hand, gives a permanent numbness to the pain and suffering that people
face from day to day. Christian teachings have claimed that the harsh realities
are only temporary, deluding its believers to masochism, in hope of that
otherworldly and permanent life.... As a result, we need Christian practice
that prays "let your will be done on earth as in heaven" (Matt.
6:10). An important theological phenomenon is that the lament is in the whole
worship and religious traditions of Israel. While prayers of agony flow from
the heart both individuals and community find expression of their grief within
the religious patterns of Israel, a prayer of a human heart made to God who is
liberator, protector and initiator of justice. This challenges us as a church
to mediate on this question: "Do we have language and space by which
sufferers and their families can appropriate their groaning before God and
before the worshipping community? Do our faith, worship and liturgy offer real
support and encouragement to persons suffering from HIV&AIDS?" While
this will be answered differently, the story of the Canaanite woman gives us mandate
to insist on making our laments heard, even if some male disciples try to
dismiss us.[33]
3.2.2 MARK 5:21-43: TALITHA CUM! HIV/AIDS READING
A) The Plot: The opening setting of the story is by the lake.
Jesus has just landed in a new place, using a boat. He is surrounded by crowds.
But then the story takes us on a journey from the open public space, by the
lake, where Jesus is thronged by crowds, to a private space, Jairus' house,
where Jesus restricts entry into the place where the sick, dying and dead child
was laid. Here he calls, "Talitha
cum!" and the child rises and begins to walk about. She must have
walked out of her room or the place where she was laid, for crowds saw her and
they were 'overcome by amazement' (v. 42).[34]
B) Interpretation: It is the time setting that punctuates this story, determining
its tension, its pace and its climax. In a word, this time setting could be
named as "an urgent and critical moment." It is Jairus, the synagogue
ruler, who defines this time setting. He comes in desperation and pleads repeatedly:
"My little daughter is at the point of death." He pleads with Jesus
"to come and lay your hands on her, so that she may be made well and
live." This is how urgent it is- a matter of life and death. Jesus
must have fully grasped the urgency of the time in Jairus' words and action.
Without any word or question, he began to journey with Jairus towards the dying
child. But then the plot is diverted. A woman comes from behind. She is a
woman who has been bleeding for twelve years, and she has sought out many
doctors, who seemingly took her money, but did not deliver healing to her
anaemic body. She too acknowledged the urgency in the walk of Jesus, Jairus and
the accompanying crowds as they journeyed towards the dying daughter. But she
could not let this moment pass. She could have decided, therefore, to try her
luck silently and from behind the scene. This could have very well been her way
of respecting the emergency journey of Jesus and Jairus. And with a touch of
Jesus’ clothes she got healed. Here, the urgency that has so far propelled the
plot forward has been slowed down as Jesus’ interest was diverted by her faith.
And messengers from his house arrived saying that Jairus’ daughter was dead (v.
35). It was at this juncture where Jairus’ faith proved worthy as Jesus turned
to him saying, “Do not fear, only believe” (v. 36). And as they approached his
house they found the house in commotion, and Jesus assured that the child was
just sleeping and raised her from death.[35]
The story has shown us both Jairus and the bleeding
woman demonstrate incredible faith in the healing powers of Jesus. Jairus
believes that Jesus can save a child who is about to die; while the bleeding
woman believes that he can heal a twelve year old incurable disease. He can
heal a disease that many doctors could not handle. The woman's expectations are
fulfilled, but Jairus gets higher than what he had bargained for. That is,
while he believed that Jesus could save his child from dying, Jesus actually
returns her from death.[36]
C) Relevance: When one reads the story of Mark 5:21-43 together
with the story of HIV&AIDS, one finds many similarities. One finds the
equation of international injustice/colonialism to a disease that sickens the
oppressed. This is because those who are under economic and political
oppressions are not able to run effective health services and economies. One
also finds patients/nations that have been sick for a long time - that are highly
stigmatized and regarded as unclean by other nations due to their ill-health. Desperate
parents/social leaders, who are trying to find healing for their
children/nation, characterize this story. The reader also finds the sick and
poor women/nations and children, who have no right to speak. The reader is
struck by women care-givers, who are sitting at home, silently watching over
their sick children and waiting for help to come until their children die.[37]
But
perhaps what is important is the difference that Jesus brings. As a liberator
Jesus brings healing. Burdened exploited and sick nations can touch Jesus.
While international exploitation has brought people to live too close to death:
to live in sickness and stigmatization, Jesus brings one into a new family,
where the exploited and oppressed are welcomed as daughters, rather than being
stigmatized and excluded for their bleeding condition. The difference that
Jesus brings to a situation of desperation has to do with the fact that he brings
hope in hopelessness by his willingness to be in solidarity with the suffering
in their search for healing. The challenge here is: how can the Church stand in
the narratives of HIV&AIDS search for justice and healing the world? How
can they walk and empathize with those who are invaded by HIV&AIDS and
pronounce hope and life in the midst of despair and death? How can their
relationship with Jesus, as individuals and communities, as academicians and
churches, become a point of breaking the bonds of death (colonial, patriarchal
and HIV&AIDS exploitation and oppression) and bring healing? One must ask
how the economic and political policies of their country have led to bleeding and
death of many people, who need the healing touch of justice. But even more
importantly, one must struggle with how they can take the challenging role of
calling, "talitha cum!" to
the dying and the dead in the age of HIV/AIDS epidemic.[38]
3.2.3 JOHN 9: DECONSTRUCTING THE HIV&AIDS
STIGMA
A) The Plot & Interpretation: The bottom line of this narrative opens
up with the disciples asking Jesus to make judgment concerning the cause of the
man's blindness. Jesus prefers not to answer the question; instead he gives the
purpose of the man's blindness. The blind man becomes the main character and
focus in the narrative. He is the infected and affected man in the narrative.
As an infected person he is the one who bears the stigma, he is the one who
bears "an attribute that is deeply discrediting." Let us now turn to
the question that the disciples put to Jesus. Their question is "who
sinned, the blind man or his parents?" This question is a revelation of
how the disciples treat the blind man. The question reveals his marginalization
in that they assume that it is either the blind man or his parents that sinned
against God that he has been born blind. And on the other hand, they use the
blind man to "settle an obscure theological debate" which enhances
his marginalization. The question that the disciples ask reveals that it was a common
belief in the society that being born blind was a result of sinful nature. It
shows an accepted norm in the society, it again reveals a societal ideology
about the concept of sin, suffering and sickness, but it must be kept in mind that
such a stigma is passed from generations to generations and is a societal
construction. The idea that sin caused suffering was common and was a
well-known factor in the New Testament period, as attested by the disciples'
question. The consequent incidents inform us that the Pharisees still held the
grudge and continued to interrogate the blind man, his family and Jesus
himself. So after having lost in their game of interrogation-fault-finding,
they resort to violence by throwing out the once blind man and emphasize by
saying that he was entirely born in sin and who he thinks he is to them. More
tragically, their last word indicates that they still held on to the stigma
that associates physical challenge/disability with sin. Their perspective has
prevailed in many societies demonstrated by HIV&AIDS stigma.[39]
B) Relevance: John 9
deconstructs the whole ideology of sin causing suffering and illness and
deconstructs the stigma that surrounds the conception of sin and suffering.
Jesus is a deconstructionist in the sense that he subverts the whole notion of
the relationship between sin, stigma, suffering and sickness. He undermines and
disrupts the concept that sin causes suffering. It helps to make us see that
once we socially create a relationship between sin and suffering, we create a
worldview of stigma. It helps us discover that in the construction of sin and
suffering, of stigma and HIV&AIDS contradicts that have been produced
within society. It again offers a theoretically response and a displacement of
HIV&AIDS stigma. It also disrupts the concepts of boundary, the distinction
between "inside and outside", the concept of boundary between
sight/blind, stigmatized/non- stigmatized. The Pharisaic ideology of
"no-mixture," "exclusivity," and "purity" is also
deconstructed in the sense that Jesus subverts their ideology at the end of
John 9 by saying that once they think they see, their sin remains- the sin of
stigmatization, the sin of judging others. Since the pure are also sinful, we really
have no business labeling each other.[40]
CONCLUSION
LUKE 4:16-22 & 1 CORINTHIANS 12:12ff: A CONCLUDING
REMARK
Finally,
the HIV&AIDS epidemic is a great challenge to the church and to the world,
but the gospel of Christ, if understood in its fullness, stands up to the
challenge. As in the Nazareth Manifesto (Luke 4:16-22), when the church finally
understands that proclaiming the gospel of Christ entails taking on the
prophetic role of announcing good news to the poor, liberating the captives,
giving sight to the blind, freeing the oppressed and declaring the year of the
Lord, then the church will be a formidable force against HIV&AIDS and
injustice. The Church as the Body of Christ is called upon to celebrate the
unity that transcends all human divisions (I Corinthians 12: 12ff). The visible
Church today however stands as a fragmented body of Christ when it hesitates to
accept the image of God in those infected/affected with HIV&AIDS. The
Church as an ecclesia (assembly) is
called out to live in koinonia
(fellowship), seeking not the holiness of a few, but the wholeness of all
without any distinction of caste, colour and creed, thereby catalyzing the
realization of basileia (Kingdom of
God) on earth." God accepts everyone with their weaknesses, God calls the
imperfect humans and make them perfect being.[41]
Christ came and offered us the pleroma
of life, life in its fullness which includes– Physical, Mental, Family, Social
and Spiritual. It is not only absence,
but cure or removal.
As a
sign of progress, the Christian Medical Association of India reports that the health arm of the National Council of Churches
in India has wings of more than 29 denominations of Protestant and Orthodox churches.[42]
But this is not the end. Church being the agent of peace should unite people
from all corners even those who are infected with HIV - Church should inculcate
in it Christ-centered attitude rather than human-centered attitude. When it
does these things the church will fill a central role in the healing process and
it will be able to provide quality care and treatment to both the affected and
the infected. The church will be able to rise and rebuild the broken souls of
our communities and our countries. Even more importantly, if and when the
church openly identifies itself as an HIV positive church, then it will eradicate
the stigma and become a healing force.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ackermann, Denise M. Tamar’s Cry: Re-Reading Ancient Text
in the Midst of an HIVand AIDS Pandemic, in Grant Me Justice!
HIV/AIDS & Gender Readings of the Bible edited by Musa W. Dube and Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro,
New York: Orbis Books, 2004.
Akoto, Dorothy BEA. Can
These Bones Live? Re-reading Ezekiel 37:1-14 in the HIV/AIDS Context, in Grant Me Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender
Readings of the Bible, edited by Musa W. Dube and Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro, New
York: Orbis Books, 2004.
Boniface-Malle, Anastasia. Allow Me to Cry Out: Reading of Matthew 15:21-28 in the
Context of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania, in Grant
Me Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender Readings of the Bible, edited by Musa W.
Dube and Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro, New York: Orbis Books, 2004.
CMAI Training Resource Guide for Churches on
HIV and AIDS, New Delhi: SAARTHI Sensible, Able & Agile to
Respond to HIV and AIDS, 2012.
Dube, Musa Wenkosi. The HIV & AIDS BIBLE, Scranton and
London: University of Scranton Press, 2008.
Dube, Musa W. Talitha
Cum! A Post-Colonial, Feminist and HIV/AIDS Reading of Mark 5:21-43, in Grant Me Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender
Readings of the Bible, edited by Musa W. Dube and Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro, New
York: Orbis Books, 2004.
http://www.apa.org as on 1st
August, 2012.
http://www.plosone.org as on 30th July,
2012.
Jayakumar, M. Aravind. The Church’s response to HIV/AIDS, in NCCI Review Vol. CXXX No. 10, edited by
Rev. Asir Ebenezer, Nagpur: NCCI, 2010.
Kgalemang, Malebogo. John 9: Deconstructing the HIV/AIDS Stigma, in Grant
Me Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender Readings of the Bible, edited by Musa W. Dube and Musimbi
R.A. Kanyoro, New York: Orbis Books, 2004.
Lalthanmawia, Dr. Ronald. Challenging
Churches to respond effectively to HIV and AIDS in India, Christian Medical
Association of India.
Melanchthon, Monica Jyotsna. Facing HIV and AIDS: Some Insights from the Hebrew Bible, in HIV/AIDS: A Challenge to Theological
Education, edited by Samson Prabhakar & George Mathew Nalunnakkal,
Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI, 2004.
NACO, Annual Report 2010-11, Department of AIDS Control Ministry of
Health & Family Welfare, http://nacoonline.org as on 28th July,
2012.
Reports on New HIV Cure Research Released Today, Washington:
XIX International AIDS Conference.
S. Samraj, et. al., AIDS in India: Who cares anyway, Bangalore: Central for
Contemporary Christianity, 2011.
The Times of India. 27-08-2008 quoted in
http://en.wikipedia.org as on 11th August, 2012.
Thomas,
Dr Mariamma, Socio Economic Background of
Affected People, Nagpur:
National Conference on Nutrition and HIV/AIDS: From Knowledge to Action, 14-15
February, 2008.
Women & HIV/AIDS: The Changing Face of the
Epidemic in India, New Delhi: India HIV/AIDS Alliance &
ICRW.
[1] Dr.
Ronald Lalthanmawia, Challenging Churches
to respond effectively to HIV and AIDS in India, Christian Medical
Association of India, 3.
[2] M.
Aravind Jayakumar, The Church’s response to HIV/AIDS, in NCCI Review Vol. CXXX No. 10, edited by Rev. Asir Ebenezer (Nagpur:
NCCI, 2010), 602.
[3] NACO, Annual Report 2010-11, Department of
AIDS Control Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, http://nacoonline.org as
on 28th July, 2012.
[4] Samraj S., et. al., AIDS in India: Who cares anyway
(Bangalore: Central for Contemporary Christianity, 2011), 65.
[5] Reports
on New HIV Cure Research Released Today (Washington: XIX International AIDS Conference), 1-3.
[6] The Times of India.
27-08-2008 quoted in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-economic_issues_in_India
as on 11th August, 2012.
[7]
http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/factsheet-hiv-aids.aspx as on
1st August, 2012.
[8] Dr Mariamma Thomas is currently a Deputy
Director, National Institute of Medical Statistics, New Delhi.
[9] Dr Mariamma Thomas, Socio Economic Background of Affected
People (Nagpur: National Conference on Nutrition and HIV/AIDS: From Knowledge to
Action, 14-15 February, 2008) 10.
[14]
http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005648 as on
30th July, 2012.
[15] Women & HIV/AIDS: The
Changing Face of the Epidemic in India (New Delhi: India HIV/AIDS
Alliance & ICRW), section 1.
[16] CMAI Training Resource Guide
for Churches on HIV and AIDS (New Delhi: SAARTHI
Sensible, Able & Agile to Respond to HIV and AIDS, 2012), 64.
[18] Musa
Wenkosi Dube, The HIV & AIDS BIBLE
(Scranton and London: University of Scranton Press, 2008), 66-67.
[19] Monica Jyotsna
Melanchthon, Facing HIV and AIDS: Some Insights from the Hebrew
Bible, in HIV/AIDS: A Challenge to
Theological Education, edited by Samson Prabhakar & George Mathew
Nalunnakkal (Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI, 2004), 79.
[21] Monica Jyotsna
Melanchthon, Facing HIV and AIDS: Some Insights from the Hebrew
Bible, op. cit., 82.
[24] Denise M.
Ackermann, Tamar’s Cry: Re-Reading Ancient Text in the Midst of an HIVand AIDS
Pandemic, in Grant Me Justice! HIV/AIDS &
Gender Readings of the Bible edited by Musa W. Dube and Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro
(New York: Orbis Books, 2004), 32-34.
[25] Denise M.
Ackermann, Tamar’s Cry: Re-Reading Ancient Text in the Midst of an HIVand AIDS
Pandemic, op. cit., 35-54.
[26] Dorothy BEA Akoto,
Can These Bones Live? Re-reading Ezekiel 37:1-14 in the HIV/AIDS Context, in Grant Me Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender
Readings of the Bible, op. cit., 98-99.
[30] Anastasia
Boniface-Malle, Allow Me to Cry Out: Reading of Matthew 15:21-28 in the Context
of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania, in Grant Me
Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender Readings of the Bible, op. cit., 170.
[31] cf. Pss.
4:1; 5:1-2; 17: 1, 6; 22:2; 27:7; 28:1, 2b; 40:1; 57:2; 77:1; 86:3; 88:1, 2; 102:1b;
119:145,146,169; 120:113; 141:1; 142:1
[34] Musa W. Dube, Talitha
Cum! A Post-Colonial, Feminist and HIV/AIDS Reading of Mark 5:21-43, in Grant Me Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender
Readings of the Bible, op. cit., 118.
[39] Malebogo Kgalemang, John 9:
Deconstructing the HIV/AIDS Stigma, in Grant Me
Justice! HIV/AIDS & Gender Readings of the Bible, op. cit., 156-163.
[41] M.
Aravind Jayakumar, The Church’s response to HIV/AIDS, in NCCI Review Vol. CXXX No. 10, edited by Rev. Asir Ebenezer (Nagpur:
NCCI, 2010), 604.
[42] Dr. Ronald
Lalthanmawia, Challenging Churches to
respond effectively to HIV and AIDS in India, op. cit., 8.
No comments:
Post a Comment