Introduction: ‘Theology’ or
‘theologizing’ has always to do with context. For theology, in simple term,
means the study about God, the understanding of/about God or the perception and
conception of/about God. Consequently, it definitely has to be somebody’s
understanding about God - the Dalit understanding, which is why ‘doing
theology’ is intrinsically related with context - the Dalit context.
A Dalit theologizing and reading of
the Bible starts with the experience of the poor, downtrodden, neglected, and
dehumanized- Pathos. Restoration, Reconstruction and Liberation are the key
concepts in Dalit Theology. As such, the theology of Dalits expounds and
chiefly deals with the Bible narrations that deal with liberation motifs, with
relevance for the liberation-needed Dalits. Thus, in the interpretation or
Hermeneutics, the context as well as the ‘con’ text are the chief
characteristics. Here the context means the historical past pathos and
experience of Dalits. The ‘con’ text, (From Latin con meaning ‘with’) means – with the text or in more sense- the
context of the author. In this paper we will be dealing with ‘theology’ in the
context of Dalit in terms of God-Talk and Christology.
Methodology: Nirmal and Devasahayam have vaguely stated that Dalit
theology should ground on the pathos (suffering) of the Dalit themselves and
that it is a reflection on Human (Dalit) experience. However, Sathianathan
Clarke elaborated and systematically put it as Dialectics of Methodological
Exclusivism and Theological Inclusiveness. Here, by ‘methodological
exclusivism’ he means the summons to conserve the distinguishing features of a
Dalit counter-theology and that Dalit methodology needs to start by hardening
the edges around Dalit reflectivity. In order to know oneself, one needs to
block out the overbearing pressures that operate to make the self into the
other, which is free from fear of being judged, manipulated, and recreated by
dominant identities and ideologies. Dalit theology, he says, is also an
encompassing discipline. All particular theological expressions ought also to
offer trajectories toward the universality of God and the inclusiveness of all
human beings in the purpose of this one creator.[1]
Nirmal further states that the ‘knowing’
of Dalit pathos are of three different modes: pathetic, empathetic and the
sympathetic. The core of Dalit theology arises from the pain-pathos of Dalits
which alone leads to pathetic knowledge, exclusively belonging to the Dalits. Akin
to the Dalit pain-pathos, there is an emphatic knowledge which is not the
first-hand experience which can be weaved into the theological agenda of Dalit
theology in its march toward resistance and liberation. The sympathetic form of
knowing is most removed from Dalit pain-pathos because there is no direct
experience of suffering in this mode. However, there is a commitment to
“identify with the Dalit cause” and initiative to “help in the process of
removal of Dalit suffering.”[2]
1. God- Talk: God-talk simply means the concept of God developed by
various theologies in accordance with their particular/own situations and with
their understanding of God. A Series of attempts and initiatives began in the
early eighties to systematically articulate who God is in the context of the
newly emerging theologies. As such, A. P. Nirmal, a Dalit theologian, claims
that the Dalit aspiration for liberation and Pathos (suffering) is the context and starting point for Dalit
God-talk.[3]In
the same tone, Devasahayam puts it across as- The term theology comes from the
two Greek terms theos and logos and they mean either ‘word of God’
or ‘word about God’. The concept of God is the object of interest and concern
of theology. It is God who is the ultimate authority and point of reference for
the theologians. The concepts related to scripture, creed, humanity are
secondary and derivative from the concept of God. The God of the Bible is the
God who is in relation to all else. Theology strives hard to bring out God’s
relation to all other reality. God or the concept of God must be related to all
aspects of Indian reality.[4]
2. Re-imaging the images of God-
2.1 God of
Liberation
i) Root & identities in the Exodus
Liberation: The Exodus liberation paradigm which has tremendous
implications for liberation theologies in Latin America has extensively
influenced the thinking and articulation of Dalit theology in India. A.P.
Nirmal particularly depends on the Deuteronomic account of the affliction, toil
and the oppression of the fore-parents of the Israelites to expound the
movement of Dalits from a "no people" to "God’s people."
Using the Deuteronomic Creed as model to construct the historical Dalit
consciousness which has to do with their roots, identities and struggle for
human dignity and "for the right to live as free people created in the
image of God."[5]
He (Nirmal) further says, “The
Deuteronomic creed not only speaks about the root and the historical nomadic
consciousness but also about the changed status of the people of Israel and
their thanksgiving. The nomadic experience is brought to memory, but so also is
the exodus experience. Few in numbers are now a nation, great mighty and
populous. No people are now God’s people. Let Christian Dalits also affirm
their own exodus experience. We should be aware of our historical Dalit
consciousness, and so we should also be aware of our present Christian
consciousness. So we are not just Dalits, we are Christian Dalits. Our exodus
from Hinduism which was imposed upon us, to Christianity or to rather Jesus Christ
is a valuable experience. It has enabled us to recognize our dalitness and also
the dalitness of Jesus the Nazareth
and the dalitness of his Father, our God. The Dalit theology should be
doxological in character.”[6]
Nirmal also says,
“The historical Dalit consciousness depicts even greater and deeper pathos than is found in the Deuteronomic
Creed. My Dalit ancestors did not enjoy the nomadic freedom of the wandering
Aramean. As outcasts, they were also cast out of their villages. Nirmal
concludes, “The Dalit consciousness should realize that the ultimate goal of
its liberation movement cannot be the ‘land flowing with milk and honey’. For
Christian Dalit Theology, it cannot be simply the gaining of the rights, the
reservation, and the privileges. The goal is the realization of our full
humanness or, conversely our full divinity, the ideal of the Imago Dei, the
image of God in us. To use another biblical metaphor, our goal is the ‘glorious
liberty of the children of god."[7]
ii) Dalitness of Liberating God: The
exodus experience of the Dalit has enabled them to recognize the dalitness of
Jesus and his Father (sic). This recognition means that they have rejected
non-Dalit deities. A non-Dalit deity cannot be the God of Dalits. This is why
Dalit have rejected Rama-the deity whom millions of Hindus worship and pray to.
He is described as Purushottama and Maryada Purush but Dalits have rejected
him. The story goes that Rama killed Shambuka- a Dalit because Shambuka had
undertaken ‘tapashcharya’- a life of prayer and asceticism. The dominant
religious tradition denied to the Dalit the right to pray. Therefore, Rama
simply killed Shambuka and performed ‘dharma’ a religious act. This is why
Dalits have rejected Rama. For Dalits he is a killer god- killer and murderer of
Dalits.[8]
But the God whom Jesus Christ
revealed is a Dalit God. He is a servant God, God who serves. Service of others
has always been the privilege of Dalit communities. Unfortunately this word
‘service’- ministry of diakonia has
lost its cutting edge. Originally the word diakonia
was associated with the dining table, the servant therefore means a waiter.
Therefore, the Dalits are prepared to say that ‘my housemaid, my sweeper is my
God.’ It is precisely in this sense that God is a servant God. He is a waiter,
a dhobi, a bhangi. Traditionally, all such service has been the lot of Dalits.
To speak of a servant God, therefore is to recognize Him and identify Him as a
truly Dalit deity. The gospel writers identified Jesus with the servant of God
of Isaiah- who was utterly faithful in his service to God (Is. 53:2 f). The language used is language full of pathos-
that is the language used for God- the God of Dalits, the Dalit God. For Dalit
theologians God is clearly a Dalit God. God, who reveals himself, both through
the prophets and Jesus Christ, is a God of the Dalits. The servant God, a God
who identifies with the servant-hood of Dalits, is perceived by Dalit
theologians as Dalit God. The servant role that the ex-untouchable played in India
was indeed a participation in this "servant-God’s ministries." Thus,
Nirmal says, "To speak of a Servant-God, therefore, is to recognize and
identify him as a truly Dalit deity.[9]
Nirmal further asserts putting the
meaning for the term ‘Dalit’ as manifested and displayed because
it is precisely in and through this people that God’s saving glory is
manifested or displayed because brokenness belongs to the very being of God. He
is one with the broken. He suffers when His people suffer. He dies in His
people’s death and He rises again in their resurrection. He weeps when they
weep and laughs when His people laugh.[10]
2.2 Creator God-
the Dalit God
i) Equality
before the Creator God: Devasahayam points out that the whole created order
is the family of God and therefore humans and non- human creation have equal
access to God. He is thus, both creator and sustainer of all the creation.[11]
Jesus Christ is the revelation of this creator God and through our belief in
him we are conceived as the family of God. Moreover the whole humanity is
created in the image of God and He breathed into human beings His Spirit. Hence,
there is a sense of divinity contained in all human beings, and we all are
partakers in the divine life. Through this interpretation he challenges the
popular Hindu theology that Dalits have no part in Brahman, and in upper caste.
The biblical God calls the whole humanity to participate in God's creation,
hence the whole humanity is called to preserve and enrich the whole created
order. Aided by the Spirit, They are to work in such a way that perfect renewal
of the created order is brought out where no one stays isolated, suffering and
uncared. This profound renewal would be a result of working humans inspired by
the empowering God.[12]
iv) Dalitness of Creator God: The God
who addressed Jesus as his Son is a Dalit, getting himself dirty in the
hard-work of making this world out of nothing. God was not creating some
spiritual pie-in-the sky, he was making mud and dust, water and steam, animals
and birds, coal and petroleum, sun-moon and stars, man and woman. After six days of work and labour, God rested
on the seventh day.[13]
2.3 Shepherd God: God was known by the
name El Shaddai to those Shepherds whose forefathers were Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob; who were abhorrent to those who cultivated the fertile fields of Egypt
worshipping their fertility deities. This is that God, who addressed Jesus as
his Son, revealing himself through the Prophets of the Old Testament as Dalit –
the One who serves, a servant God. This is, for instance, manifested in the
four Servant Songs in Deutro-Isaiah.[14]
2.4 God of Empowerment: Reflecting on
the valley of dry bones (Ezekiel 37:1-10), Devasahayam points out the
similarities between God's empowering act and Ambedkar's threefold strategy for
Dalit liberation, Unite, Educate and Agitate. He points out that, the coming
together of the displaced bones is an inspiration for the Dalits to unite under
a common concern transcending their divisional boundaries. This would only be
possible, if the Dalits are educated of their needs and aspirations and also
that they share commonality in social stratification, subjugation and
alienation. This would help the Dalits to rise collectively and equally for
their liberative cause and their struggle for liberation would be a means of empowering
themselves, being empowered together by God just as the displaced bones.[15]
2.5 The Warrior
God: For Nirmal, in order to combat against the classical Indian Christian
Theology of the Brahmanic tradition, he suggests that ‘signs’ and ‘wonders’ are
not enough. We need a ‘mighty hand’ and an ‘outstretched arm’ and a certain
measure of ‘terror’. In short, we need an activist struggle for liberation, a
movement informed by its action towards its action towards its theological
reflection. Our pathos should give birth to our protest- a very loud protest
that the walls of Brahmanism should come tumbling down.[16]
Hence, the God who delivered His children from the Egyptians was a warrior God.
Through His might and power He crushed the enemies as mentioned in the book of
Exodus. The Psalmist also declares that it was God’s right hand that protects
and triumphs over the enemies who will do the same to bring down the walls of
Brahmanism.
Ex 15:6- “Your right hand, O Lord,
was majestic in power. Your right hand, O Lord, shattered the enemy.”
Ps 18:35- “You give me your shield of
victory, and your right hand sustains me…”
Ps 44:3- “It was not by their sword
that they won the land, nor did their arm bring them victory; it was your right
hand, your arm, and the light of your face, for you loved them.
Critical Evaluation: As it has been pointed out, the first Dalit
theologians formulated their theologies out of their experience, which was
their pain-pathos. And this was the mold that molded their understanding of God.
But a dispassionate reader of their theologies would find incoherencies and
irrelevances which can be seen in the following -
Firstly, inspired and influenced by the liberal theologies, Dalit
theology has taken the Exodus event to construct historical Dalit
consciousness- their roots, identity and struggle as well as their liberation.
This is incoherent for the fact that the Israelites were altogether craving for
their liberation in one voice whereas among the Dalits, majority of them are
not even aware of that powerful God who delivered His people. Here a
potentially more relevant narrative has been suggested in terms of the return
of the Jews from the exile. But this is still argumentative since most of the
Jews exiled in Babylon refused to go back, hence the Diaspora Jews. Therefore
one needs to ask- does the liberation called forth include all the Dalits
irrespective of religion? And secondly, they were led to the Promised Land with
signs and wonders which was a real motivating factor to cling on to their faith
and belief. But as to our present context it is vital to ask ourselves the
question- Does God still work with signs and wonders? Thirdly, it may not be quite
relevant to depict God who has to deliver His people as the God who suffers, as
it suggests a weak and incompetent God. Almighty God has always been
presupposed to be mighty and transcends everything. Another problem facing the
Dalit theology is the use of metaphors of God, like Warrior God, Shepherd God
etc. Even though metaphors are the expressions used to describe the character
of God, but the fact is that they always leave the imageries and impression
that God is really equipped with such qualities and characters. Thus it may not
be effective to the mass to depict God as a warrior who literally slays the
enemies, a hostile and violent God. And also a shepherd belongs to the lower
class of the society and trades his sheep through their meat, milk, wool and
by-products. So depicting God to be a Shepherd would just ring a bell of a
lower-class farm man's life.
But at this juncture, Clarke has given in a sentence, concise but
complete… God of Creative Dalit Consciousness is saturated in Dalit-pathos but
strong enough to Save.[17]
Thus, the God who was active in the
Old Testament, and made Himself identical with the oppressed, suffering and the
cast-outs, was the God who liberated, empowered and shepherded. Consequently,
the Lord in the New Testament, manifested in the person of His son, Jesus
Christ, is obvious of the purpose of his coming and the ends of his ministry.
Throughout his life and ministry, we find him being identical with the
suffering or the sufferer. Thus, Clarke emphasizes saying that the pivotal
point of Dalit theology should be Jesus Christ. He who hung on the cross and
suffered to liberate man is still the same figure suffering along with us,
offering the hope of liberation.[18]
Hence, our next venture will be the Christology as expressed by the Dalit
theologians.
3. Dalit Christology: As
mentioned above, Dalit Christian theologians look Christ from their condition
of wretchedness, they find in the life and ministry of Jesus a number of
conditions corresponding to their own. Clarke sees two dimension contained in
Christ that guides our efforts of arriving a relevant contextual Christology.
The first dimension tries locating a divine meaning applicable at all time and
situations and the second, endeavors to locate the impact of Jesus of Nazareth
on believers of His time.[19]
Therefore, Christology from a Dalit perspective suggests an attempt to see
Jesus' life and ministry, death and resurrection in the light of the experience
of Dalits. In this manner, the Dalit Christian theologians endeavor to
construct a Christology that is contextual and meeting the needs and
aspirations of the Dalits.
Nirmal supplements saying, Dalit
Christology means first of all we proclaim and affirm that Jesus Christ whose
followers we are was himself a Dalit- despite his being a Jew. It further means
that both his humanity and his divinity are to be understood in terms of his
Dalitness. His Dalitness is the key to the mystery of his divine human unity.[20]
4. Christ as the central figure (Historical Jesus), his Dalitness-
4.1.
Genealogy: Dalit Christian Theologians look at Jesus’ root and find that
among Jesus’ ancestors were people who had undergone painful experience similar
to those of Dalits. The first name is that of Tamar, the daughter-in-law of
Judah. She outwitted her father-in-law by sleeping with him and conceiving from
him (Genesis 38:1-30). Secondly, there is Rahale -the harlot who helped the Israelite
spies (Joshua 2:1- 21). Thirdly, there is the King Solomon. We should not
forget that Solomon was an illegitimate Child of David. These small details of
Jesus' ancestry should not be forgotten as they are suggestive of his Dalit
conditions.[21]
4.2. Background: He is also referred to
as a "carpenter's son". That sounds like looking down upon his
father's profession.[22]
In Mt. 13:55, the tone as to which Jesus was referred to resonances the offense
and insult as coming from a lowly class of the society, which reads as- "Isn't
this the carpenter's son? Isn't his mother's name Mary, and aren't his brothers
James, Joseph, Simon and Judas?
4.3 His
self-attested title: The title that Jesus preferred to use for himself is
"The son of Man". The title is used in three different ways, so say
the New Testament Scholars. Firstly, it simply means man in an ordinary way.
For instance, in one place when a scribe wanted to follow him, Jesus said,
"Foxes have holes, and birds of the air have nest; but the son of Man has
nowhere to lay his head." (Matt 8:20). The second group of the Son of Man
sayings is indicative of Jesus' present sufferings and imminent death. The
third group of the Son of Man sayings is called the Eschatological Son of Man
sayings. The second group speak of the Son of Man as encountering rejection,
mockery, contempt, suffering and finally death. Let us look at a few of these
sayings:
"And he began to teach them that the Son
of Man must suffer many things, and be rejected by the elders and the chief
priests and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again".
(Mark 8:31)
"And he said to them, 'Elijah
does come first to restore all things; and how it is written of the Son of Man,
that he should suffer many things and be treated with contempt." (Mark
9:12)
"For the Son of Man also came
not to be served but to serve and to give his life as a ransom for many."
(Mark 10:45)
These sayings indicate that Jesus
as the Son of Man had to encounter rejection, mockery, contempt, suffering and
finally death. He underwent these Dalit experiences as the Prototype of all
Dalits.[23]
4.4 His life: Another noteworthy
feature of Jesus' life is his total identification with the Dalits of his day.
Again and again Jesus is accused of eating and drinking with publicans, tax
collectors and 'sinners' of his day (Mk 2:15-16). His approach and attitude
towards Samaritans, the Dalits of his day and has demonstrated that Jesus loved
and cared for the Dalits.[24]
4.5 His Preaching: In the Nazareth
Manifesto what is generally overlooked is to its significance for a Christian
Dalit Theology, when Jesus quotes the passage from Isaiah and declares,
"Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing, we read that
"all spoke well of him, and wondered at the gracious words which proceeded
out of his mouth." But then Jesus goes on to tell his audience for whom
his liberation is meant. His two illustrations indicate that the liberation he
is talking about is meant for the Dalits and not for non-Dalits. In his first
illustration he speaks about Zarephath the widow in Sidon to whom Elijah was
sent. But he also makes the point that there were many widows in Israel, but
Elijah went to none of them. Similarly, it was only Namaan the Syrian, the
leper whom Elisha cleansed. Of Course, there were many lepers in Israel, but
they were not cleansed. The 'Dalits' were set over against 'Israel'. The gospel
that Jesus brought was the gospel for "Dalits" and not for non-Dalits
not for Israel. The whole situation changes at Jesus' explosive words and we
read, "When they heard this, all in the synagogue were filled with wrath.
And they rose up and put him out of the city, and led him to the brow of the
hill on which their city was built, that they might throw him down
headlong." (Luke 4:16-29) The Nazareth Manifesto then is really manifesto
for Dalits.[25]
4.6 His ministry: Although many of his
ministerial events, in terms of healing and teachings, can be related to the
Dalit identity, one of the most significant incidents for a Christian Dalit
Theology is that of the cleansing of the temple. Not to rule out the various
interpretations given by New Testament scholars, Light Foot’s interpretation
gives the best relevance for Christian Dalit Theology. He maintains that the
incident must be understood in terms of its implications for the Gentiles. All
the buying and selling and money exchanging took place in the part of the
temple precincts which were reserved for the Gentile worship was the Gentile
Court. On the other hand the gentiles had no access to the inner precincts
where the Jewish worship proper was conducted. The bazar that was held in the
Gentile court thus effectively prevented them from conducting their worship in
a peaceful and quiet manner. Jesus the Messianic King thus restores to the
Gentiles their religious rights. Light Foot’s interpretation makes sense to the
Indian Dalits who had to struggle for the temple entry rights and we know about
temple entry legislation in the various states of India. We the Indian Dalits
know what it means to be denied the entry to the temple and to be denied the
right to pray and worship. Ambedkar and his followers had to agitate for the
entry to the Kala Rama temple in Nasik. We know about many such temple entry
agitations. In his act of restoration of the Gentile rights to worship, we see
a prefiguration of the vindication of the Indian Dalit struggle for their
prayer and worship rights.[26]
Another instance is Jesus’ washing
of his disciples’ feet. Massey comments John 13.1-15 as Jesus shows forth to
the world his precise nature of servanthood.
"Do you know what I have done to
you? You call me teacher and Lord and you are right, for that is what I am. So
if I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one
another's feet. For I have set you an example that you also should do as I have
done to you".
Massey further expounds from this pericope that those who are
humbled by the world are lifted in dignity in the sight of God.[27]
4.7 His suffering and death: There are
many other examples of Jesus' sympathy for the Dalits of his day. But his
Dalitness is best symbolized by the cross. On the cross, he was the broken the
crushed, the split the torn, the driven as under man - the Dalit in the fullest
possible meaning of that term. "My God, my god, why hast thou forsaken
me?" he cried aloud from the cross. The Son of God feels that he is
God-forsake. That feeling of being God-forsaken is at the heart of our Dalit
experiences and Dalit consciousness in India. It is the Dalitness of the divinity
and humanity that the Cross of Jesus symbolizes.[28]
Thus, to summarize Jesus as a Dalit we can infer from the comments of
different theologians as follows-
Deepti Sukumar, while reflecting on
safaikaramcharis in the body of Christ, points out that Jesus through His birth
in an environment of poverty, alienation and discrimination indentified himself
with Dalits.[29]
Maria Arul Raja also points out that the crucified Christ consciously indentifies
Himself the Dalits which would liberate them." [30]
Jesus consciously drove himself to the Cross, and sacrificed his life. This
self choice attests to the two intentions of Jesus, firstly, his obedience to
God and secondly, his absolute solidarity with oppressed and the marginalized. Thus
through the self sacrifice of Jesus Dalits are challenged to obey Jesus and
disobey the caste hierarchy and empty themselves to be in deep solidarity with
co- Dalits. It is thus not only birth,
but even to the point of death that Jesus identifies himself with the Dalits.
The intention of his identification is to inspire the Dalits in the quest for
their liberation. Therefore Christian Dalits and all Christians, need to have a
renewed vision which would make them active participants in God's saving
activity in the world and empower themselves to take the responsibility of
their own deliverance in Christ's name, and deliver all others under oppression.[31]
Critical Evaluation: Jesus of History truly identified himself with
the poor and lower class people of his time. But the story of Jesus Christ does
not end with the Jesus of History, but there is more about the Christ of Faith
who had resurrected from death and sits beside the Father’s throne and will
come back to take away the righteous with him and judge the evil. In this
light, Dalits who have been identifying their sufferings with Jesus’ can now
claim an eschatological (immanent and imminent) that their place is being built
by Christ and will return judge the injustice and evils and lead his people to
eternal liberation.
Conclusion: From the above
Theology/Christology and the evaluations, we can sum up that Dalit theology, as
a liberation theology, is a moving theology which is not rigid but flexible and
floppy. It has begun yet still in the process, foundation has been laid yet
construction is still executed. Thus, as Clarke says, doing Dalit theology
involves methodological exclusiveness and theological inclusiveness.[32]
|
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Course
Facilitator: Philip
Vinod Peacock
[1] Sathianathan Clarke, Dalit Theology: An introductory and
Interpretative Theological Exposition, Clarke’s paper. 2.
[2] A.P. Nirmal, quoted by Sathianathan
Clarke in Dalit Theology: An introductory…
3.
[3] Arvind P Nirmal, “Towards a
Christian Dalit Theology”, in A reader in
Dalit Theology, ed. Arvind P Nirmal (Madras: Gurukul Lutheran Theological
College and Research Institute, 1988), 58.
[4] V.Devasahayam, “Doing Dalit
Theology: Basic Assumptions,” in Frontiers
of Dalit Theology ed. by V.Devasahayam (Madras:ISPCK/Gurukul, 1997),
275-276.
[5] Arvind P Nirmal, “Towards a
Christian Dalit Theology”, op. cit., 62.
[6] Arvind P.Nirmal, “A dialogue
with Dalit literature,” in Towards a
Dalit Theology, ed. M.E. Prabhakar (New Delhi: CISRS, 1988), 80.
[7] Arvind P. Nirmal, "Toward a
Christian Dalit Theology," in Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology:
Emerging Trends, R.S. Sugirtharajah (ed.), (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994),
33.
[8] Nirmal, "Toward a Christian
Dalit Theology…op. cit., 34.
[9] Nirmal, "Towards a
Christian Dalit Theology…, ibid., 37.
[10] Nirmal, "Towards a Christian
Dalit Theology…, ibid., 38.
[11] V. Devasahayam, Outside the Camp: Bible Studies in Dalit
Perspective (Madras: Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research
Institute, 1994), 5.
[12] Ibid., 6.
[13] James Massey, “Dalit Theology” in
A Theology from Dalit Perspective,
James Massey & S. Lourduswamy, eds., (New Delhi: Centre for Dalit Studies,
2001), 14.
[14] Ibid., 15.
[15] Ibid., 17.
[16] Nirmal, "Towards a
Christian Dalit Theology…op. cit., 62.
[17] Sathianathan Clarke, Dalit Theology…op. cit., 8.
[18] Sundar Clarke, “Dalit Movement-
Need for a Theology” in Towards a Dalit Theology,
M. E. Prabhakar, ed., (Delhi: ISPCK, 1988), 33.
[19] Sathianathan Clarke, Dalits and Christianity: Subaltern Religion
and Liberation Theology in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998),
183.
[20] Nirmal, "Towards a
Christian Dalit Theology…op. cit., 65.
[21] Ibid, 66.
[22] Ibid.,
[23] Nirmal, "Towards a
Christian Dalit Theology…op. cit., 66-67.
[24] Ibid., 67.
[25] Ibid.,
[26] Ibid., 69.
[27]
James Massey, “Dalit
Theology”, op. cit, 15.
[28] Ibid.,
[29] Deepti Sukumar,
“safaikaramcharis in the body of Christ in Frontiers
in Dalit Hermeneutics, op, cit.
[30] Marya Arul Raja, “Some
Reflections on a Dalit Reading of the Bible in Frontirer…
[31] Ibid.,
[32] Sathianathan Clarke, Dalit Theology…op. cit., 2.
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