Introduction:
The inter-testamental period covers from the time of the
return from the 70 years of Babylonian exile to Palestine to the reign of Herod
the Great. It is said to cover about 450 years. [1]
This period has sometimes been called “the silent years” because there was no
oral or written revelation communicated directly by God, between the prediction
of Elijah’s coming (Mal. 4:5) and the angelic announcement of the birth of John
the Baptist (Luke 1:11-20).[2]
This interim period offered many historical events of the Jews which in fact,
were quite turbulent. During this time, a series of Hellenist rulers fought for
ascendancy of Palestine
1. The Inter-Testamental Period
1.1
Background ― An overview of Temple and Priesthood preceding the Inter-Testamental
Period: When Judah came under the political dominion of
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (605 B.C.E.), they were deported three times
till they were finally restored to Palestine. The first deportation took place
at the time of Babylonian conquest itself. The deportation included Daniel
(Dan. 1:1-6). Jehoiachin, supplanting his rebellious father Jehoiakim, reigned
only three months because he likewise rebelled (597 B.C.E.). At this time the
second major deportation took place. When
Zedekiah took the throne and aligned himself with Egypt in an attempt to overthrow
the Babylonian yoke, Egypt failed to support Judah, the city of Jerusalem fell
to the Babylonians after a lengthy, tragic siege and the remaining inhabitants
were led away in the third major deportation (586 B.C.E.; II Kings 25:1-21).
In each of these deportations, much of the temple wealth
were confiscated and removed to Babylon. And after every deportation, the
remaining wealth of the temple and palace was removed and only the poor
remained in the land. The temple vessels were broken and carried away and
finally burnt down in the third deportation.[3]
Even though being burned to the ground, it remained a holy spot to which
pilgrims continued to journey- and from northern Israel too (Jer. 41:5) - to
offer sacrifice among the blackened ruins. A cult of some sort was probably
carried on there, if sporadically, through the exile period.[4]
It was at this juncture, Ezekiel came to the picture with the vision of A New
Temple. This vision, being entirely God’s work, seems to indicate a clear
difference from the earlier Temple, which in fact could be called a Royal
Temple.[5]
Untill the destruction of Jerusalem; religion had been the concern of the
priests and prophets for the most part, the populace joining in its ritual
merely as units of a holy nation. But in these dark years in Babylonia,
religion came to be individualized, and the better part of the people rose to
the beginnings of a personal and experimental faith.[6]
The seventy years of exile (605-535 B.C.) gave birth to the Orthodox Judaism. Since the temple and
the sacrificial system had been destroyed, the exiles congregated themselves
into assemblies or synagogues for the worship of God, the study of the Old
Testament, and fellowship. In the centuries that followed, synagogues sprouted
throughout the Mediterranean world wherever the Jews emigrated. They were never
designed to become a substitute for the temple. Sacrifices were never offered
in them because Jerusalem was the only God-appointed place of sacrifice.
The captivity also saw the rise of the scribe. Since the priests could not practice their
ministry, they undertook a serious study and copying of the Old Testament
Scriptures. Soon they became the "theologians" of Orthodox Judaism.
It is believed that most of the Priestly Books were either collected or written
down during this period.
The Exile also produced the Diaspora. Later, when the exiles and their families were permitted
to return to the land, many of the Jews chose to remain in Babylon. Whereas
Jews were formerly located only in Palestine, the Exile saw the beginning of
Jewish residence outside of the land. This takes on significance when one
realizes that these converted, Diaspora Jews formed the nucleus of New
Testament churches scattered throughout the Roman Empire.[7]
1.2
The genesis of the Inter-Testamental Period: The Inter-Testamental
period is marked significantly in the Jewish history when Cyrus, the king of
Persia after conquering Babylonia in 539 B.C.E., allowed the Jews to return to
their homeland. He permitted that the ruined temple be rebuilt and the expense
should also be given from the royal treasury. He also directed that the vessels
taken by Nebuchadnezzar be also restored to their rightful place.[8] Shesh-bazzar,
the prince[9] of Judah
became the in-charge of the first returnees, the second being led by Ezra, the
scribe. Shesh-bazzar was accompanied by uncertain number of Jewish group. Since
the journey from Babylon to Palestine
was too long, difficult and dangerous, and many Jews were well established in Babylon Judah
was about 20,000 in Jerusalem
1.3
Temple and Priesthood during the Inter-Testamental Period:
From the insufficient source provided by the prophetic literatures and
extra-Biblical sources, scholars have divided the Inter-Testamental period as
follows-
1.3.1
Situation under the Persian Rule (539-332/331 B.C.E.): The
Jews came under the dominion of the Medo-Persian empire when Cyrus conquered
Babylon and Belshazzar in 539-538 B.C.E. (Dan. 5). Even though this was the
period where they got their freedom, things were not as easy as the prophets
foretold. In reality, they were destitute returnees, without adequate food and
clothing (Hag 1:6). On the other hand, the successor of Cyrus had forgotten his
kind edict (Ezra 5:1-6:5) to restore the Temple and thus the aid promised by
the never materialized in effective proportions. To worsen the situation, the community
was apparently divided into two ill-reconciled segments: i) those- mostly of
the returning exiles- who were moved by lofty prophetic ideals and devotions
the faith and traditions of the fathers; and ii) those- including the bulk of
the native population- who had absorbed so much of the pagan environment that
their religion was no longer Yahwism in pure form. The Jewish leaders were
fully aware of the importance of finishing the Temple and refused to rest until
it was done. At this juncture, a new messianic hope had been uttered through
Haggai and Zechariah, that Yahweh had again chosen Zion as the seat of his rule
and for the urgency of necessary preparation from the people. However the
obstacles may be, eighteen years after the first return from Babylon, the
rebuilding of the temple was completed during Darius’ reign. Yet,
paradoxically, the achievement of this goal was attended by bitter
disappointments.[12]
Judah seems to have continued a sort of theocratic community
under the authority of the high priest Joshua, who led side by side with Zerubbablel,
and his successors until the time of Nehemiah (Neh 12:26). But as an offset to
the growing community, there had been a serious lowering of religious
principle. The priesthood had become careless and worldly; inter-marriage with
foreigners had become common and the Hebrew tongue was defiled which was
seemingly a possibility of the nation disappearing also. The laity were showing
great disinclination in the payment of tithes and Temple dues. Practice of offering
cheap and blemished sacrifices on the altar of Jehovah were emulated from one
another. The rites and ceremonies of their faith were administered
perfunctorily, bribery was common and the marriage tie was freely repudiated.
Sorcerers, adulterers and false swearers were tolerated. Religious skepticism
naturally became prevalent. The most significant detail given to us was the
presence of a small group of pious worshippers who clung together and refused
to be swallowed up in the pessimism of the times.[13]
It was during the time of Artaxerxes 1 that Ezra the scribe was permitted to
return known as the Second Return(Ezra 7:10).[14]
Then Nehemiah asked the king for permission to return to Jerusalem to rebuild
the walls which were still in despair (Neh 1-2). Then, under the leadership of
Ezra and Nehemiah, revival broke out (c. 444 B.C.E). Certain features of the feast
of Tabernacles were reinstituted; confession of sin and separation from the
Gentiles occurred; and a covenant was signed, pledging the obedience of the
people of God in the instruction of their children, the observance of the
Sabbath and the Sabbatical year, and the financial support of the temple (Neh.
8-10). Nehemiah returned to Persia. Upon his second visit to Palestine, he
discovered that the people had broken their pledge. Under his supervision the
offenders were disciplined (Neh. 13). At this point, the record of the Old
Testament ends for the next 400 years.[15]
But extra-Biblical (Elephantine, Josephus) source informs us that when Bagoas
(successor of Hannaniah who succeeded Nehemiah) became the governor of Judah, the
high priest was Johanan. According to Josephus, when Johanan killed his brother
Joshua in a fight over the office, it provoked Bagoas to lay severe penalties
on the Jews over a period of years. Johanan probably soon gave place to his
son, Jaddua, the last high priest listed in the OT.[16]
Bright assumes from the archaeological excavations that, towards the late
Persian rule, the same name Yehud
appeared as governor as well as either temple treasurer or high priest,
affirming that the civil and religious authority being concentrated in the
hands of a single person, the high priest. And as for the lives of the people
in general, the breach with the Samaritans widened and the assimilation of
Aramaic over Hebrew made it a dark age with the deep influence of the Koine brought about by the Greeks.[17]
1.3.2 Situation under the Hellenistic
period:
i) Alexander the Great: Persian rule
came to an end in Judea when Alexander the Great captured Jerusalem in 332
B.C.E (initiated by his predecessor Philip of Macedon). Alexander’s victory
marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period which was to last until 63
B.C.E. Tradition states that he spared the city of Jerusalem because Jaddua,
the high priest, showed him out of the prophecy of Daniel (ch. 8) that he would
conquer Persia. Whether this tradition is historically correct is difficult to
determine, but it is a fact that Jerusalem was not destroyed even though other
conquered cities were.[18]
Alexander greatly enlarged the bounds of knowledge and of human endeavour.
Particularism was replaced by the idea of “the inhabited world”.[19]
Thus, with the dominant influence of such new phase of history, it can be
assumed that the strict conservative mindedness of the Jews would have
definitely been diluted which is evident from the quantum leap in inter-tribe
marriage. The early death of Alexander, without proper heir, led to chaos and
divisions in his empire between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of
Syria.
ii) The Ptolemies: With the division of
Alexander’s vast empire among his generals at his death in 323 B.C.E., Judea,
the frontier between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, came
under the successive control of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. Ptolemy I
captured Jerusalem in 320 B.C.E., and by 301 B.C.E. Ptolemaic rule was
stabilized. For roughly a century Palestine enjoyed a peaceful and prosperous
era under the Ptolemies. Jerusalem’s political role in this era was minor,
although the city was the administrative center of Judea. [20] The Jews,
like other Ptolemaic dominated people, assumedly enjoyed the status that had
been theirs under the Persians. Judea and its immediate environs, can be
regarded as a kind of temple state, governed by the high priest with the
support of a kind of council, consisting of prominent priests and elders, known
popularly as Sanhedrin. The high priest, who apparently had personal
responsibility for yielding tribute to the crown, was both spiritual head of
the community and, increasingly, a secular prince. Records of the following
century clearly state the development of a priestly aristocracy. The high
priest also paid taxes to the Ptolemies in the name of the people, just as the
Persian time. The OT last high priest Jaddua, according to Josephus, was
succeeded by his son Onias I, who was again succeeded by Simon I at the time of
Ptolemaic rule. It is reported that during the course of third, fourth and
fifth Syrian war, starting from Ptolemy IV, Jews were persecuted and the temple
must have been greatly damaged where Simon II had considerable restoration work
carried out on the city and the temple.[21]
Meanwhile Jews outside the bounds of Palestine by this time
certainly outnumbered those living at home. Egyptian Jews soon adopted Greek as
their native language, though Hebrew did not die away totally. Thus, beginning
in the third century, translation of Scripture into Greek was made, known as
the Septuagint.[22]
The Ptolemaic fall in the fifth Syrian war marked a new
beginning for the Jews as well. At any rate, conservative Jews began wanting to
do away with the Ptolemies as the influence of Greek culture and thinking
started influencing the Jewish youth in their social life more and more. When,
after Ptolemy V Epiphanes, the Seleucids empire ruled over Palestine, with a
restored spiritual authority to the high Priest. But the cries of joy in
greeting the Seleucids were all too soon to fall silent.[23]
iii) The Seleucids 198-166 (B.C.E): When
Palestine
When Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-163 B. C.) became the ruler
of the Seleucids dynasty, the legitimate High Priest during this time was Onias
III, a man of more conservative party. During his absence, his brother Joshua
(Jason-his Greek name) offered the new king a large sum of money in exchange for
the high-priestly office. The introduction of gymnasium in Jerusalem played a
significant role in the making of Hellenistic-Judaism relationship. Young men
enrolled in the gymnasium where all sorts of Greek sports were fostered with
the Greek fashions of dress. Young priests neglected their duties to compete in
the games. Embarrassed by their circumcision, since sports were participated in
naked, many Jews submitted to surgery to disguise it. Conservative Jews were
shocked and regarded them as apostate. Greek sports were not merely sports, but
inseparable from the cult of Heracles or Hermes.[26]
Since the royal treasury was decreasing rapidly right from
Antiochus III’s reign, Antiochus IV Epiphanes started interfering in the
religious institution of the Jews. At that time Onias III, the high priest of
Jerusalem took care of the tax submitted to the king. However, his brother
Jason attained the position of high priesthood with an imperial appointment
through promising higher tax and extra personal contribution to the King (2
Macc 4:7-8)[27]. Jason
was also pushed out from the high priesthood by Menelaus who offers yet a bribe
and still higher tax to the king. Menalaus tried to become high priest after
Jason. He promised the king a huge bribery. For that purpose he began to steal
Temple vessels and sold them (II Macc. 4:27-32). He also arranged the
assassination of Onais III to strengthen his position. When Jason attempt to
remove Menelaus from the high priesthood by means of a revolt, Menelaus fled to
Jerusalem as popular feeling of the Jews were on Jason (2 Macc 5:5ff). But as
Antiochus IV appointed Menelaus to the high priesthood, he regarded the revolt
of Jason as a rebellion against his rule. He then removes Jason from his office
and restored Menelaus to his former position..[28]
During these years of deplorable situation, the Jews were
severely persecuted because they refused to submit to pagan, Hellenizing power.
The persecution worsened when Antiochus IV failed to conquer Egypt due to the
intervention of Rome, he took out his rage upon the Jews of Jerusalem. He
plundered the Temple and removed its sacred furniture and vessels and polluted
the temple by erecting a pagan altar in its midst and by offering a pig as a
blood sacrifice.[29]In his
interest of political unity, he granted the rights of the Greek polis to
various cities and fostered all things Hellenistic. This included the worship
of Zeus and other Greek gods.[30] In 167
BC, he attacked Jerusalem on Sabbath. A huge number of the male population was
killed and the women and children were enslaved. The city walls were also
destroyed. They prohibited all Jewish rites and Olympian Zeus worship was
offered. A monthly check was made in which, everyone found with a copy of the
Book of the Law or a child who was circumcised was put to death. In December
167 (25 Kislev), the first pagan sacrifice was performed on the altar to Zeus
which had been erected over the altar of burnt offering in the temple.[31]
But, unknown to the Seleucidae, they had already stimulated
a spirit of nationalism among the Jews and all these factors triggered the
Maccabean Revolt.
iv) The Maccabees: When Mattathias, an old priest, was asked
to offer a pagan sacrifice in the village of Modin, he refused to obey and
killed the king’s representative and the apostate Jew who volunteered to do the
sacrifice, thus, started Maccabean Revolt. After the death of Mattathias, his
son Judas became the leader of the rebels and had a great success,[32] a more
detailed will be dealt with in the second part of the paper.
When Jonathan, successor of Judas, was replaced by Simon, he
gained for himself and his family official recognition as a high priestly
order. This act legitimized a new dynasty, a hereditary high priesthood that
came to be known as the Hasmoneans.[33]
v) The Hasmoneans: Simon the Maccabees
was murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy along with his sons Mattathias and
Judas, with the sole aim of ruling the Jewish nation won by the Maccabees (1
Macc 16:11-17). However the remaining son John escapes the treachery of his
brother in law and arrived at Jerusalem Judea from 135-104 BCE. At the beginning of his rule,
Antiochus VII invaded Judea and besieged Jerusalem Judea
became strong in its own right while there was the gradual collapse in the
power of Seleucid and the Ptolemies.[35]
John Hyrcanus I undertook many campaigns to expand the boundaries of his
nation. He inherits the title of the high priest as well as the ruler though he
neglected his duties as the high priest. Due to this he was subjected to many
criticisms.
During his reign of John Hyrcanus, two religious-political
parties emerged. The Hasidim represented the conservative wing who wished retain
Jewish religious and national liberty and to resist the influence of Greek
culture. This separatist group was the forerunner of the Pharisees. On the
other hand, the Hellenizers were willing to surrender some of their Jewish
distinctives to gain some
desired qualities of the Greek way of life. This group matured into the sect of
the Sadducees.[36] According to Josephus, the Sadducees
were a specific class and an upper stratum of well to do members of the society
of their time. They accepted only the written tradition as Holy Scripture and
in contrast to the Pharisees, they would do nothing with an oral tradition.
They also rejected the doctrine of resurrection of the dead and the existence
of angels and spirits. They were antagonist to messianic and apocalyptic movement.[37]
It is said that the Pharisees wanted him to surrender the office of the high
priest which caused him to turn away from them and made a closer alliance with
the Sadducees.
The single-handling of the priesthood and governorship still
followed. Aristobulus I, the successor of John Hyrcanus, even entitled himself
as king and high priest. His successor, Alexander Jannaeus was also appointed
as the king and the high priest by the widow Salome Alexandra (wife of his
brother Aristobulus I). He later married her presumably out of respect of
Mosaic Law. After his death, Salome herself took the throne and nominated her
oldest son for the high priest. It was during her reign that the Pharisees
started to have voice in the assembly. But when she died, Hycranus II took the
throne and the already possessed- the office of the high priest. Aristobulus
II, with the support of the Pharisee, rebelled for the throne and succeeded and
convinced to a treaty, thus becoming the King and the High Priest. When Pompey
of Rome intervened and placed Hycranus II to the same position, it was merely
the end of the Hasmonean Dynasty under Roman rule. He functioned strictly under
the Roman governor of Syria. It was assumed that he was allowed to levy temple
tax. The last ruler of the Hasmoneans Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, captured
Jerusalem with the help of the Parthians and became the last king-priest ruler.
Herod, son of Antipater the chief councelor who helped Hycranus II, drove out
the Parthians and made himself ruler of Palestine and thus, ended the Hasmonean
king-priest rule. It was at this point where the constant jealousy of the
Hasmonean priests, the struggle between the Pharisees and the Sadducees, and
intervention of Gentiles (Syrians, Parthians, Idumeans and Romans) led to the
intense hope for the messiah.
1.3.3.
Situation under the Roman period: When Herod started to
rule in Palestine, he began the reconstruction of the Temple ca. 20-19 BCE in
order not to offend the religious sensitivities of the Jews. He erected the new
foundation walls and enlarged the surrounding area to double its formerly
extent. Hereafter, we find a systematic and proper functioning of Temple and
Priesthood- the clergy and the other social groups associated with. But the
high priestly families who held hereditary power since the Maccabean revolt
were replaced by his own candidates, drawing from few privileged families, viz.
Boethus, Ananus, Phabi and Camithus.
When the Romans took over Palestine in 63 BCE, they
delegated the rule of the Judean society to the Hasmonian high priestly regime.
But during the reign of Herod (37-4 BCE) the high priestly families who held
hereditary power since the Maccabean revolt were replaced by his own candidates.
During the direct Roman rule through governors (6-66CE), Jewish affairs were
left to the priestly aristocracy. During Herodian and Roman rule the high
priests were drawn from few privileged families, viz. Boethus, Ananus, Phabi
and Camithus. The high priests collaborated with the Roman government and
played a mediating role between the Romans and the common people and the high
priests were expected to defend the national and religious interests. Mediating
role is also seen in the fact that they supported the payment of the imperial
tribute and were forced, in special cases when the common people resisted the
payment, to collect them for the Romans. This is because the position of the
high priest depended on the co-operation with the Romans.[38]
1.4. Other sanctuaries outside Jerusalem:
1.4.1. The Temple at Elephantine:
Some papyri dating
from fifth century BCE testify that there was a Jewish military colony at
Elephantine on the southern frontier of Egypt. They had a temple of Yaho
(Yahweb) which was in existence before 525 BCE. But shortly after the end of
the Persian rule over Egypt, these Jews at Elephantine scattered and their
temple disappeared. It appears that
this community did not have good relationship with the Temple at Jerusalem. We
also find in the Elephantine community[39]
that Yedoniah, the priest observed the Feast of Unleavened Bread, indicating
the continuous support by the rulers. It also mentions about riot breaking out
in the community led by the priests of Khnum with the connivance of Persian
military commander, leading to the destruction of Jewish temple there. Three
years later, as requested
by the
Elephantine Jews to Bagoas, their temple was rebuilt.
1.4.2 The Temple at Leontopolis: Josephus
states that a high priest's son, Onias IV, came to Egypt ca. 162 BCE after the
murder of the high priest Onias III (cf. 2Macc. 4:33-34). He was accepted by
Ptolemy VI Philometer and was allowed to build a temple on the abandoned site
of the Egyptian temple. This temple was built on the pattern of the Temple at
Jerusalem, but smaller and less splendid with some deviations. Since there were
sufficient number of priests there, formal worship was established and from 160
BCE on this temple was in operation until the Romans pulled it down in 73 CE.
1.4.3 The Temple at Gerizim: The
final separation between the Jews and the Samaritans happened when the
Samaritans erected a temple on mount Gerizim. The Samaritans called their
temple 'the house of the powerful God, 'the tabernacle of his angels,' 'the
place of the presence of his majesty,' 'the place destined for sacrifice'. The
exact date of the founding of this Samaritan temple is not known. According to
the Samaritan tradition, it was founded by Joshua, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar
and later restored by Sanballat after the return from exile. But, according to
Josephus, the temple at Gerizim was built by a certain Sanballat who lived a
century later than Nehemiah which means it dates back to 322 BCE. Though the
date of its founding is uncertain, the Samaritan Temple still existed in
167-166 BCE.[40]
Evaluation
of Temple and Priesthood during the Inter-Testamental Period:
Firstly, the priesthood was, as attested by the Testament of Levi and Book of
Jubilee, corrupt, self serving and sensual. The latter book even explicitly
speaks of the greed and fraud of the religious leaders, accusing them of
polluting the Temple. I Enoch refers the leaders as weak shepherds. The Psalms
of Solomon says that the priests defiled the Temple and that God does not
accept the offerings. In the Testament of Moses, the priests are accused of
injustice, polluting the Temple, idolatry, greed and accepting bribes. Thus,
all these inter-testamental literatures testify that the Temple and Priesthood
had become corrupted, greedy, and profane in the eyes of the common man.[41]
There was a pre-conceived affection towards the Temple in
the lives of the Jews. It served not only as the religious centre, but also as
the political and social institution of the nation. The divine presence and
this affection of the people were used to legitimize the monarchy. The rulers
had direct control over the priesthood and the treasury of the Temple which
could easily lead to misuse of the Temple and priesthood particularly during
the time of Hasmoneans when the civil and religious power was under one
authority. The presence of the temple outside Jerusalem- Elephantine,
Leontopolis and Gerzim seem to indicate opposition of the Jerusalem Temple by
the Diaspora Jews and the hostility to the Jerusalem priesthood. The Temple
also had an important economic role. It had immense wealth through offerings,
tithes and taxes. This wealth flowed onto the hands of the corrupted priestly
aristocracy. However, the Temple had always been the centre of both religious
and social life.
2.
The effect of Maccabean Revolt in the building and Rebuilding of Jerusalem: It
may not be necessary to trace the detail background of the revolt, as it had
already been mentioned. So to have a quick glance we shall begin with the immediate
cause of the revolt.
The attempt to Hellenize the Jews was in full swing under
the order of Antiochus Epiphanes. Tension and a rebellious spirits brewed in
the minds of the Jews. The anger of the Jews erupted when Mattathias, a priest
of Hashmonaim (Hasmoneans) from village of Modin
2.1 Brief Sketch of the Revolt: In
the early stage of the revolt, many Jewish refugees had been attacked and
killed on the Sabbath as they refused to defend themselves. This led Mattathias
and his followers to decide to fight even on Sabbath if they were attacked.[43] After the
death of Mattathias, his son Judas became leader of the rebels. The Jews, under
the leadership Judas, waged a kind of guerrilla war-fare which soon proved very
successful (1Macc 3:13). In the autumn of 165 BCE, three Syrian generals were
defeated near Emmaus by the rebel Jewish rebels. Moreover, Lysias, the king’s
counsellor was beaten by the Maccabees (1Macc 4.34f).[44]
Soon after the defeat of Lysias, Antiochus IV died of serious illness in 163
BCE. When Antiochus V occupied the throne, the Jews were given full religious
freedom (2 Macc 11:23-26)[45] with the
royal pardon to all the rebels. The Maccabaean success has some reasons such
as:
·
There were only few Seleucid troops in
the country.
·
The supporters of Hellenism
underestimated the Maccabaean movement.
·
The Hassidaeans supported the
Maccabaean revolt.[46]
2.2
Effects of the Revolt: After the three years of revolt,
Judas conquered Jerusalem Temple Temple
After those events, the purification and rededication of the
temple took place on 25 Kislev (about 15 December) 164 BCE,[49]
exactly on the same day (25th Kislev)[50]
after it had been defiled by the sacrifice of swine flesh by Antiochus IV.[51] The feast
of Hanukkah is still celebrated annually to commemorate the rededication of the
temple[52] and
reinstitution of sacrificial rites.[53]
Their achievement in the battle and the purification of the temple drew many
people that they gave their lives in defending Temple
and the Holy City
The importance and prestige of the temple increased under
Hasmonean rule. The sanctity of the Temple as the essence of Judaism is
reflected in 2 Macc, a book produced under Hasmonean dynasty for political and
religious purposes. The book was written in the early years of John Hyrcanus’
reign to impress the Jews of Alexandria with early Hasmonean military and
religious achievements-their triumph over the Seleucids, their purification of
the temple and the celebration of Hanukkah. The sanctity of the Temple
A number of practices emphasizing the centrality of the
Temple had already developed by the first century B.C. These practices, which
appear to have originated in the Hasmonean period, became widespread and
normative in the late second Temple period. The large scale pilgrimages to Jerusalem by the Jews in the Diaspora, as well as in Judea and a half shekel annual contribution were nurtured
and encourages by Hasmonean leaders. These practices not only enhanced the
religious status of the Hasmoneans as high priests, but they also emphasized
that Jerusalem -with its Temple
The most prominent institutions of the period were located
in the Temple area or on the Temple Mount. It not only served as the ritual
center for the nation’s many and varied celebrations over the course of the
year, but it was also the meeting place of the highest courts of the land, and
probably the governing body of the high council of the Jews.[57]
In the
Hasmonean period, the religion of the ordinary Jew focused on the Temple, its
rituals requirements. Aside from the offerings to priests and Levites, a Jew
was obliged to bring first fruits as well as the first produce of his flocks to
Jerusalem. Moreover, four times every seven years he was to spend a tithe of
his earnings within the bounds of Jerusalem.[58]
These obligations were in addition to the half-shekel contribution and the
requirement to be present in the Holy City on each of the three pilgrimage
festivals (Passovers, Tabernacles and Weeks). As the occasion arose, individual
Jews go to the temple to offer sacrifices for personal reasons-a sin or guilt
offering, a freewill offering, an offering in fulfillment of a vow or following
childbirth.[59]
Jerusalem’s
population during this period was mostly Jewish. The priests were the leading
class within Judean society. They not only controlled the most important
institution within the city (the Temple), but they were also integral part of
the local aristocracy. With the rise of the Hasmonean state, priests played a
leading role not only in religious, but also in its political and military
affairs. This also marked the revival of independent Jerusalem.[60]
We can also infer that the revolt was the origin of the important groups such
as Saducees, Pharisees, Essenes and the Qumram.[61]
Evaluation and Conclusion: The inter-testamental period, which
is usually absent in the Protestant canon of the Bible, provides a rich
information and ground for understanding many of the frustration and hatred of
the Jews towards foreign rulers, at the dawn of the conception and birth of
Jesus in the New Testament. Many of the
prominent religious sects and groups which became very prominent in the life of
the Jewish people in New Testament times can only be understood through the
history of the Jews in the inter-testamental. The glory of the Temple had never
been eradicated in the heart of the Jews even when they were in a miserable
condition. Destruction of Temple meant collapse of their religion and the whole
nation. Thus, defilement of it was a severe transgression When the first Temple
was destroyed by the Babylonian mighty force, they were dreadfully shocked and
they thought that they could not even praise God in the foreign and strange
land, that is to say, a defile/profane land. And when it was again defiled by
Antiochus IV Epiphanes by sacrificing swine on the altar of burnt offering in
167 B.C.E. the furious Jews revolted against the Seleucid kings. Thus,
Jerusalem and its Temple was always the central in the lives of the Jews, Holy
and Divine which mainly governed the religious and socio-political lives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Annet, Edward A. The Hidden Centuries:
Malachi to Matthew. London: NSSU, 1959.
Box, G. H. Judaism in the Greek Period . London:
Oxford University Press, 1932.
Bright, John.
A History of Israel. London: SCM
Press, [1959] 1980.
Clark, David G. “Intertestamental Period,” New International Dictionary of the Old
Testament Theology and Exegesis, vol 4 Carlisle: Paternoster Press, [1973],
1984.
Gromacki, Robert G. New Testament Survey.
Michigan: Baker Book House, [1974],1998), 1.
Herrmann, Siegfried. A
History of Israel in Old Testament Times, Trans. by John Bowden.
Philadelphia: Fortress Pree, 1980.
Holder, John. The Intertestamental Period: Old Testament
Introduction 4. Delhi: ISPCK, 1998.
Jagersma, H. A History of Israel in the Old Testament
Period. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1982.
Jagersma, H. A History of Israel from Alexander the Great
to Bar Kochba. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1985.
King, Philip J. “Jerusalem,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman et.al.,
vol.3 H-J. NewYork: Doubleday, 1992.
Mathew, Sam P. Temple-Criticism in Mark’s Gospel.
Delhi: ISPCK, 1999.
Metzger, Bruce Manning.
The
New Testament, its background, growth and content. London: Lutterworth
Press, 1965.
Schurer, Emil. The
History of the Jewish people in the age of Jesus Christ, vol. I. Edinburg:
T&T Clark Ltd., 1979.
Shanks, Hershel. ed., Ancient
Israel: A Short History from Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple. London:
SPCK, 1988.
Wood, Leon J. A Survey of Israel’s History. Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1970.
NOTES
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[1]
David G. Clark, “Intertestamental Period,” New
International Dictionary of the Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, vol 4
(Carlisle: Paternoster Press, [1973], 1984), 718.
[2] Robert
G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey (Michigan:
Baker Book House, [1974],1998), 1.
[3]
Ibid., 2.
[4] John
Bright, A History of Israel (London:
SCM Press, [1959] 1980), 344.
[5] H.
Jagersma, A History of Israel in the Old
Testament Period (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1982), 190.
[6]
Edward A. Annet, The Hidden Centuries:
Malachi to Matthew (London: NSSU, 1959), 21.
[7] Robert
G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey, 3.
[8]
John Bright, A History of Israel.,
361f.
[9]
A member of the royal house.
[10]
John Bright, A History of Israel., 362
[11]
John Bright, A History of Israel., 365-367.
[12]
Ibid., 430.
[13]
Edward A. Annet, The Hidden Centuries,
27-28.
[14]
Ibid., 31.
[15] Robert
G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey, 5.
[16] John
Bright, A History of Israel., 408.
[17] John
Bright, A History of Israel., 413.
[18] Robert
G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey, 7.
[19]G.
H. Box, Judaism in the Greek Period
(London: Oxford University Press, 1932), 10.
[20]
Philip J. King, “Jerusalem ,”
The Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited
by David Noel Freedman et.al., vol.3 H-J (NewYork: Doubleday, 1992), 757.
[21]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1985), 20-35.
[22] John
Bright, A History of Israel.,
416-417.
[23]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel…,
35.
[24]
Leon J. Wood, A Survey of Israel’s
History, (Grand Rapids ,
Michigan
[25]
John Bright, A History of Israel., 416.
[26]
Ibid., 420.
[27]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba, 45.
[28]
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period:
Old Testament Introduction 4 (Delhi: ISPCK, 1998), 25.
[29] Robert
G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey, 10.
[30]
John Bright, A History of Israel., 419.
[31]
John Whitehorne, “Antiochus,” Anchor
Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday,
1992). Hereafter, Anchor Bible Dictionary
is cited as ABD without page
number since it is not given in the software.
[32]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander., 60.
[33] Robert
G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey, 11.
[34]
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period:
Old Testament Introduction 4, p.371.
[35]
Siegfried Herrmann, A History of Israel
in Old Testament Times, Trans. by John Bowden, (Philadelphia : Fortress Pree, 1980.), p.368.
[36]
Robert G.Gromacki, New Testament Survey,
11.
[37]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel…, 70.
[38]
Sam P. Mathew, Temple-Criticism in Mark’s
Gospel (Delhi: ISPCK, 1999), 36.
[39]
Western part of the empire who claimed to be Jews.
[40]
Sam P. Mathew, Temple-Criticism in Mark’s
Gospel., 32-34.
[41]
Ibid., 71.
[42]
Leon J. Wood, A Survey of Israel’s
History, (Grand Rapids ,
Michigan
[43]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba, p.59.
[44]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba, p.60.
[45]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba, p.61.
[46]
Ibid.,60.
[47]
Emil Schurer, The History of the Jewish
people in the age of Jesus Christ, vol. I (Edinburg: T&T Clark Ltd.,
1979), 217.
[48]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba 60, 61.
[49]
Emil Schurer, The History of the Jewish
people., 164.
[50]
Ibid., 217.
[51]
Bruce Manning Metzger, The New Testament,
its background, growth and content (London: Lutterworth Press, 1965), 21.
[52]
Ibid.
[53]
Hershel Shanks, ed., Ancient Israel : A Short History from Abraham to the
Roman Destruction of the Temple
[54]
Ibid., 186.
[55]
Ibid., 196.
[56]
Hershel Shanks, ed., Ancient Israel.,
196f.
[57]
Ibid., 197.
[58] Tessa
Rajak, “Hasmonean Dynasty,” ABD.
[59]
Ibid.
[60]
Hershel Shanks, ed., Ancient Israel.,
195.
[61]
H. Jagersma, A History of Israel from
Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba, p.68.
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